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Spanish and Portuguese Citizenship for Sephardic Jews

Descendants of Sephardic Jews may be eligible for Spanish or Portuguese citizenship. 

* Article originally published in May 2017; requirements for this law are in flux 

Spanish and Portuguese Citizenship for Sephardic Jews

Within the last three years, Spain and Portugal have begun to offer citizenship to the descendants of Sephardic Jews who were exiled during the religious persecutions of the late 15th century. As a result of these new laws, we’ve received many requests for research into possible Sephardic ancestry. We are happy to assist in these research efforts, but before pursuing possible Sephardic connections it is important to understand the requirements and stipulations for obtaining citizenship. It should also be noted that unless you have recent known connections to established Sephardic communities, it is very difficult to prove connections to Sephardic ancestors from centuries ago. The purpose of this article is to provide some basic information about the requirements for each country.

Obtaining Citizenship in Spain

In order to obtain Spanish citizenship under the new law, descendants of Sephardic Jews who were exiled in 1492 need to document their Sephardic Heritage and demonstrate a “special connection” to Spain. Though these requirements seem to be fairly straightforward, they are actually quite restrictive.

In 1492 more than 350,000 Jews were exiled from Spain by royal decree, and those who remained were forced to convert to Catholicism or were executed. Many descendants of converted or “converso” Jews eventually settled in the new world. However, under the Spanish citizenship law it is unclear whether or not the descendants of conversos qualify for Sephardic citizenship since many of them remained in Spain and its colonies, and others only left Spain after several generations. By talking to our various contacts we’ve been able to ascertain that is sometimes possible to obtain citizenship by documenting descent from converso Jews, but it depends on the circumstances, and doing so frequently requires extensive and arduous research. This process might be expedited if a converso ancestor is already known and the only requirement is to search for genealogical documentation, but it’s also possible that even after all the work is done the request for citizenship will be denied. Unfortunately there is no way to know ahead of time what the decision will be.

For those who are descendants of the exiled Jews of 1492, the requirements for citizenship are still quite steep. Though applicants need not be practicing Jews, they do need to have their Sephardic heritage vetted and confirmed through a local Rabbinic authority. With this certificate, they also need documentation regarding the articles of confederation of the local Rabbinic authority and/or its legal representatives. Other means of demonstrating relationship include a knowledge or use of Ladino or Haketia, traditionally Sephardic languages. Applicants can also demonstrate relationship to the Sephardic community through genealogical research, proving a relationship to individuals in official lists produced by Spanish authorities in 1924 and 1948, or through certification with the Spanish Federation of Jewish Communities.

However, proving your heritage is just the first step. After proving Sephardic heritage, applicants must also take several tests on Spanish language, culture, and history onsite in Spain or at one of its consulates. Travel costs are to be covered by the applicant, and all of this is to be completed by the applicant within four years of the date that the law went into effect (by October 2019).

Even with all of the documentation and testing, an applicant still may not qualify for citizenship. The law is vague in many areas and a great deal of confusion has arisen around the application process. Due to the multiple tests , the strict requirements, the excessive costs and fees for all applications, translations and certificates, the vague stipulations regarding Sephardic surnames, the excessive paperwork, and the time limits, the application for citizenship for descendants of Spanish Sephardic Jews has proven to be an extremely frustrating process for many current applicants. It has also served to severely limit the number of individuals who have actually succeeded in obtaining citizenship. Of the estimated several million who could qualify for citizenship, less than 10,000 have actually done so. One Spanish delegate expressed his disappointment at the passing of the law as follows:

“We want to express our disappointment because this law, which was supposed to restore justice, has become increasingly complicated. If we observe the procedures, the prerequisites, the number of documents to be submitted, the certified translations, the fees, the language and culture exams and the need to travel to Spain, we cannot but wonder about the reason for all of these hurdles…Considering all of these factors, we believe that this law does not right a wrong. This law is more of a symbol, a first step, but not a law that will serve to satisfy the majority of Sephardim who would like to obtain Spanish nationality.”[1]

Some websites claim to post lists of “Sephardic” surnames, and state that if an individual has one of these surnames in their recent ancestry, they may qualify for citizenship under the new law. While this could be helpful, it is important to note that while there are some surnames that are unique to the Sephardic community, many (if not most) of the surnames utilized by Sephardic Jews are also found in broader non-Sephardic Iberian populations. Many Spanish and Portuguese surnames originated simultaneously in different areas. Just because a Sephardic Jew may have utilized the Gomez surname does not mean that all other individuals with the Gomez surname are also tied to Sephardic families.

Finally, most individuals who approach us regarding Spanish Sephardic citizenship wish to obtain “dual citizenship” with Spain. However, Spain may grant dual citizenship to citizens of Iberoamerican countries like Andorra, Philippines, Equatorial Guinea and Portugal, but in all other cases, applicants for Spanish citizenship must make an oath to “renounce their previous nationality.” The effect of this renunciation depends on the previous nationality of the applicant. In the case of the United States, this renunciation is not considered legally binding under American law. Therefore, in the United States you would be considered to only have American citizenship and in Spain you would be considered to only have Spanish citizenship. While technically illegal to continue to hold other nationalities in conjunction with Spanish citizenship, it appears that this is a common practice among American expats in Spain.

Obtaining Citizenship in Portugal

In order to obtain citizenship under the Portuguese law, individuals must demonstrate their connection to a Community with Portuguese Sephardic origins through genealogical documentation. Application for citizenship is submitted to either the Jewish Community of Lisbon or the Jewish Community of Oporto, and must include copies of the birth certificate, passport, and proof of residence of the applicant as well as genealogical documentation of the applicant proving their connection to a Community of Portuguese Sephardic origins and a 150 euro fee for review of the application. Though these requirements seem less arduous than the Spanish citizenship process, as of October 2016, only 8% of the applications received have been approved for citizenship.[2] The good news is that while Spain has issued a deadline for the submission of Sephardic Jewish citizenship applications, Portugal has not.

Because of the difficulties listed here, we generally recommend pursuing citizenship only if you have demonstrable and recent connections to established Sephardic communities, strong family traditions of Sephardic Jewish, converso, or crypto-Jew ancestry, or known Sephardic Jews among the members of your family tree. In all other cases it can take hundreds of hours to trace each family line back far enough to determine if a connection is there, and the ultimate outcome might still be that the there is no connection – or it is unable to be documented.

Whether you are interested in obtaining citizenship in Spain or Portugal, our experts can assist in performing the required research to demonstrate a connection to Sephardic Jews. While we can never guarantee specific results, we know the most efficient ways to search for the records you’ll need. Contact us today to discuss which project would be best for you!

[1] Soeren Kern, “Spain's Law on Citizenship for Sephardic Jews ‘Does Not Right a Wrong,’” Gatestone Institute, https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/6010/spain-citizenship-jews, accessed May 2017.

[2] J.S. Herzog and AP, “Portugal has only approved 8% of Sephardic Jewish applications for citizenship,” www.ynetnews.com, 24 October 2016, accessed May 2017.

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Going Beyond Ethnicity Estimates in DNA Testing

As a specialist in genetic genealogy, one of the most frequent topics I address in my conversation with others is ethnicity estimates. Someone might say something like: “I’m not really sure how much to trust those genetic tests since my grandmother was Italian, and I only came back with 15% Italian in my results. If they can’t even get the ethnicity right, then what use are they?”

In reality, there are two parts of genetic genealogy test results: ethnicity admixture and genetic matches. Ethnicity admixture results analyze the mutations and segments of DNA and determine in which populations those mutations and segments are most often found. Genetic cousin match lists calculate the number, location and size of segments of DNA that different individuals share in common. Based on the number, size, and location of segments, the relationships between a test subject and their genetic cousins are estimated. While ethnicity results can be helpful in some specific situations, genetic cousin match lists are the most useful element of DNA test results.

5.5x8.5_DNA_RelationshipQuickReferenceChartv2_ltgEach individual inherits half of their autosomal DNA from each of their parents. Beyond that, the amount of DNA shared in common is only approximate due to a random process called recombination, which shuffles the DNA each generation. Each individual will inherit about 25% from each grandparent, 12.5% from each great-grandparent and approximately half the previous amount for each subsequent generation. Although two first cousins will have both inherited 25% of their DNA from each of their common grandparents (50% in total) they will have inherited a different 25%. Therefore, first cousins will typically only share about 12.5% of their DNA in common. Because descendants along distinct lines inherit different portions of their common ancestors’ DNA, it is important to test as many people from distinct family lines as possible.

Every individual in your DNA match list shares at least one segment of DNA with you that you likely inherited from a recent common ancestor. Based on the number of segments you share, the length of those segments, the position of those segments, and the likelihood of inheriting those segments over multiple generations, DNA testing companies estimate how closely related you are to different individuals in your match list. Closer relationship levels share unique and distinct levels of DNA. For example, the amount of DNA shared between siblings will be very different from the amount of DNA shared between first cousins, which in turn is distinct from the amount of DNA shared between second cousins. More distant relationships, however, are slightly harder to differentiate. The amount of DNA shared between fourth cousins could be the same as the amount of DNA shared between fifth or sixth cousins. Some more distant cousins may not share any DNA at all. Even though they may have both inherited DNA from their common ancestors, they could inherit unique segments of DNA.

So why are DNA match lists more useful than ethnicity estimates? While your ethnicity admixture results may report a general region of the world where your ancestors may have lived 300-1000 years ago, match lists give valuable clues regarding genealogical relationships to other individuals. Most of your genetic cousins are related to you within a genealogically relevant time frame. Even if you are not able to determine the exact common ancestor between you and your genetic cousins, their test results and their pedigrees may offer clues regarding specific towns and places of origin for your own ancestors. Through analysis and correlation of the trees, origins, and ancestors of members of your DNA match list, you may be able to identify previously unknown ancestors, uncover likely relatives, connect with lost branches of your family tree, and break through genealogy brick walls.

To make the most of your DNA match lists, consider the following four principles:

1. Collaboration

Genetic cousin match lists can be overwhelming. Where to start? How to begin? I recommend starting with what is closest to you. Who are your closest cousins? The more DNA a genetic cousin shares with you, the more likely it is that you will be able to identify a common ancestor with that individual. Even if you can already see how you might be related to someone, collaboration can still be helpful. Just as they will have inherited different DNA than you have from your common ancestors, they will also have inherited different stories, information, and documents that may be helpful for your search.

When collaborating with genetic cousins, make your communication brief, clear, and to the point. If it is your first attempt at contact, briefly introduce yourself. Briefly explain your research interests and explain why you are contacting them. Make 1-3 specific requests of them, offer to provide assistance or information in return, and provide direct contact information if desired.
For example, an attempt at collaboration might look like this:

“My name is [your name here] and it appears that we are genetic cousins. I have been doing genealogy research for the past five years and I am particularly interested in learning more about my maternal grandmother’s French ancestry. Based on our shared DNA and shared relatives, it appears that you may be related to my maternal grandmother. Do you have ancestry from Southern France? Do you have a family tree you can share with me? If not, could you share the names of your grandparents or great-grandparents? I would love to collaborate with you to determine the nature of our shared relationship. I have performed thorough research on my French family and have several hundred documents relating to that side of my family. If we can determine our relationship, I would be happy to share the documents, sources, and information pertinent to your family tree. Feel free to contact me through this messaging system or directly via email [email here] or by phone at [phone number here].”

Some common requests you might make while collaborating with genetic cousins include the following:

• Request access to a family tree.
• Request the names of the individual’s ancestors, keeping in mind that typically it is better to ask for the names of grandparents or great grandparents rather than parents. Asking for information regarding living individuals may make some individuals feel uncomfortable and may prevent them from responding to your request.
• Request that they transfer their test results to Gedmatch.com or another website so you can explore your relationship further.
• Request that they share their ethnicity report or their match list with you.
• Request contact information for other relatives who may know more regarding their family history.
• Request information about the amount of DNA and the known relationships they may have with genetic cousins you share.
• Ask if they have any close genetic cousins who have also tested. Knowing which of their close relatives you do not match may help to narrow down how you are related.
• If their relationship is already known, request information that they may have regarding your shared ancestor and collateral relatives.

In one recent case we performed at Legacy Tree, we were attempting to locate information regarding an individual’s biological father whom she had never met. She had a name and an occupation and that was all we had to start with. When we reviewed her test results, we found that she had a close genetic cousin who was an estimated second cousin. Based on her relationships to the client’s other matches, and based on her ethnicity, we knew that she was a paternal relative of the client, but did not know exactly how. We could have spent more than 20 hours documenting each of her great-grandparents and all of their descendants, but instead we contacted her to ask for additional information on her family tree. In mentioning the name of the client’s biological father, the match knew exactly who we were talking about and gave us information regarding his later family, his immigration to Puerto Rico, and his death – thus pointing us to the exact family of interest and saving us and the client a great deal of effort.

2. Identification

The main goal of most collaboration is to identify the source of shared DNA with a genetic cousin. But what happens when they never respond to your request? Even for non-responsive matches, it is frequently possible to determine how they are related to your family. The key to successful identification is to use every piece of evidence afforded.

Some common pieces of evidence frequently included as part of DNA profiles and which might help your search include the following:

• Username: if the username is unique or if it resembles a real name, use that to guide searches in public records, whitepages, published email lists, and social media accounts. Numbers in usernames often refer to important dates like birth or marriage. Many people use the same username with their email and social media accounts. They may also use that same username to publish queries in online genealogy forums relating to their ancestors.
• Profile picture: Use this to compare against yearbooks, newspapers, obituaries, and Facebook. You can perform reverse image searches using Tineye and Google.
• Age, birth date, birthplace, and residence: Use this information to guide searches in newspapers and online directories. Consider searching databases of yearbooks. You can also use this data to search for more recent and updated contact information.
• Small, limited, and private family trees. If they have a tree attached to their test results or to their member profile, use all information it provides. Extend their ancestry for them. If the tree is private, as is frequently the case at Ancestry.com, perform searches of your known family names to see if any of them appear in your genetic cousins’ private tree. Also remember that the default naming pattern for trees at Ancestry.com is to select the surname of the user followed by “Family Tree. Other websites follow a similar naming pattern and the name of the private tree could provide clues regarding your shared ancestry.
• Names of most distant known ancestors, research interests, and lists of surnames: Use this information to perform searches of combinations of surnames in databases of compiled family trees and genealogical records. Once several ancestors of a genetic match have been identified, trace their descendants until you are able to narrow down to the match themselves.
• Centimorgans, percentages, and number of segments shared: Some amounts of shared DNA are unique to specific levels of relationship. You can estimate the likelihood of different levels of relationship using the data published at the shared cM project as well as data published in the AncestryDNA help menus and at ISOGG.org.
• Shared DNA matches: Though it may not be possible to identify how a match is related to you specifically, it may be possible to determine their likely relationship based on how they are related to your other known matches.

In general, social media, newspapers, obituaries, and public record databases are excellent sources for locating information on living people. As you perform these searches, however, remember to respect the privacy and wishes of those who may not want to be contacted.

In a recent case we were able to identify the father of a woman born in Melanesia by extending the ancestry of several close genetic cousins using some of the strategies listed above. Even though these genetic cousins did not respond to requests for collaboration, and even though they provided very little information regarding their family trees on their respective DNA profiles, we were able to reconstruct this woman’s British ancestry using the trees we constructed through public records for her close genetic cousins and searching for connections between collateral relatives of each cousin. Once we had reconstructed her tree we were able to trace descendants of each of her likely ancestors and identify her father.

3. Organization

Dealing with a huge number of autosomal DNA matches can be overwhelming and confusing. I recommend organizing matches based on their known relationships to the test subject and to each other. Organization of DNA evidence follows some of the same principles as organization of traditional research. Just as good genealogy researchers will keep logs of their searches and their correspondence, genetic genealogists should also keep logs of their research and correspondence. These “logs” often take form as notes and commentary on genetic matches. Each DNA testing company offers means of annotating DNA matches, but frequently these notes are not searchable, making it somewhat difficult to locate “that one match who was related to so-and-so.”

Several third party tools can assist in organizing your DNA matches and your notes on those matches. The AncestryDNA helper chrome add-on by Jeff Snavely enables automated scans of AncestryDNA data and will add buttons to your interface at Ancestry.com. Included in these buttons is an option to search your results by user, reported surnames or notes. Another third party tool is the DNAGedcomClient by Rob Warthen. This subscription app enables researchers to perform automated scans of DNA test results at Ancestry.com and 23andMe. The outputs of these scans are spreadsheets with information on shared DNA, ethnicity estimates, in-common-with matches and notes on genetic matches. As spreadsheets, they are searchable and can enable easy location of any notes that have been added to specific matches in the subject’s account.

Spreadsheets are an excellent way of organizing DNA matches. Each line in the spreadsheet can be dedicated to a different genetic cousin or match. We might recommend keeping separate spreadsheets for different tests or different subjects. In spreadsheets, researchers can comment on shared segments, known relationships, potential relationships, shared surnames, shared ancestral origins, and shared genetic cousins between a subject and a match. These notes can then be used during the analysis and correlation stages of the genealogical proof standard.

Another popular program for organizing DNA matches is Genome Mate Pro. As professional genealogists, we rarely utilize this program for clients since it requires a significant amount of input before meaningful results can be organized. Nevertheless, it is very useful as a database and organization tool for personal research and investigation.

Organizing your DNA matches is a daunting task not only because there may be a large number of them, but also because they are constantly changing. Developing a strong organization structure can seem like an attempt to hit a moving target. It can be even more daunting if there are multiple moving targets. The purpose of organization is to enable genealogical discovery, and genealogical discovery is most often achieved when pursued through the lens of a narrow and specific focus. Technology is meant to serve as a tool to enable a researcher’s goals and purposes, but sometimes it can become the end in and of itself. This is as true of genetic genealogy testing as it is of any other type of technology. Without clear goals and research objectives, the tools genetic genealogy offers can end up being your task masters. Rather than letting your DNA test results dictate the direction of your research, use genetic genealogy test results as a tool to make genealogical discoveries. Instead of attempting to document your relationship to each genetic cousin in your match list (an increasingly impossible task as more and more people test), seek to identify your relationship to your closest matches and then use that information to guide your prioritization and investigation of other more distant matches. Choose a specific research objective and then use your test results to narrow down to a pool of matches which are most pertinent to your genealogy research questions. This will make organization of your matches much more manageable and much more useful.

We recommend focusing on your closest matches and matches that appear to be pertinent to the specific research questions you are exploring. If a genetic cousin shares more than 50cMs with you, there is about a 50% chance they are related within 9-10 generational steps and there is a much higher chance you will be able to identify a common ancestor. Once close genetic cousins have been identified, you can then search for other more distant cousins who are likely related through the same ancestral lines by identifying genetic cousins who match at least two known descendants of an ancestor of interest. You can also eliminate other genetic cousins from consideration in your research if they match known relatives from your other family lines. If you are attempting to extend unknown ancestry, document which relatives belong to your known family and then prioritize investigation of those who also match them and who have unknown relationships. Use relationships of genetic cousins to each other to identify which genetic cousins are most pertinent to a research question.

Chromosome mapping is a type of organizational strategy that can be helpful in some situations and can guide collaboration with genetic cousins. For chromosome mapping, focus on identifying your relationship to known second cousins and more distant relatives. Then identify the segments of DNA you share in common. Individuals who share those same segments of DNA with you are likely related through the same ancestral lines. Though chromosome mapping is useful as an organizational strategy, it can also easily become an end in and of itself. Remember that your main objective will typically be to make genealogical discoveries and extend ancestral lines. In our experience, we consider chromosome mapping to be the last resort for making genealogical discoveries. Analysis of relationships, evaluation of shared DNA, and extension of family trees between genetic cousins is the most useful approach for genealogical discovery.

In a recent case performed by Legacy Tree, one of our client’s was attempting to extend the ancestry of her great-grandfather who was born in the Southern U.S. in about 1840 with the very common name of John Jones. Several candidate ancestral couples had been identified as possible parents, but exhaustive traditional research had not provided conclusive evidence for any of the candidates. We constructed a “genetic network” of her 500 estimated 4th cousins and identified all of the genetic cousins to whom each of them was related. Using this information we used proprietary technology to quickly identify groups of related individuals among the client’s genetic matches. We eliminated from consideration those genetic cousins who were related through her maternal ancestry and identified several genetic cousins who were related through the ancestor of interest. Using these genetic cousins as a “search query” we next identified all genetic cousins who were related to at least two descendants of the client’s great grandfather or who fit as part of their genetic network group. Using this strategy we identified common ancestors between more distant relatives. As a result, we were able to connect the client’s great-grandfather to his ancestral family and extend his ancestry an additional four generations.

4. Evaluation

Successful genetic genealogists apply DNA inheritance patterns and probabilities of relationship to specific research problems. Once you have identified a likely relationship between yourself and a genetic cousin, determine if your proposed relationship fits with the observed amount of DNA you share with each other. Some questions you might consider include the following:

1. Does the amount of DNA you share with your genetic cousin fit with what you would expect given your documented relationship? In other words does your documented second cousin share an appropriate amount of DNA to be a full second cousin, or is it possible he may be a half relative or may be related in some other way?
2. Are there other ancestral lines that you share in common with your match which could provide alternative explanations for your shared DNA?
3. Are there other ancestral lines that match 1 shares with match 2 independent of your relationship to either of them? In other words, does your maternal first cousin also share ancestry with your paternal first cousin independent of their respective relationships to you?
4. Do we share other types of DNA that we would expect given our proposed relationship? If your proposed genealogical relationship indicates that you share common direct-line paternal ancestry, do you share a common Y-DNA signature? If not, there may be a case of misattributed parentage. If your proposed genealogical relationship indicates that you share common direct-line maternal ancestry, do you share a common mtDNA signature? If not, again there may be a case of misattributed parentage. If you share common ancestors who could have contributed DNA to both of your X-chromosomes, do you share DNA on the X-chromosome, and if not, what is the likelihood of that scenario given your proposed relationship?
5. Are there any ancestral lines that are not well represented in your DNA match list? Are there close genetic cousins with known relationships to each other, but no known relationship to you?
6. Are there known relatives who you might invite to test who could represent ancestral lines that are not represented in your match list? Once they have tested, do they share the amount of DNA that would be expected given their relationship? Do they share DNA with other individuals from the family of interest who do not share DNA with you?

When evaluating your DNA test results, it is possible to determine the probabilities of likely relationships based on the number of segments and the number of centimorgans shared. Centimorgans (cMs) are a measure of genetic recombination, and communicate the likelihood that two points on a single chromosome will be separated in one generation. Some ranges of shared centimorgans are more likely for specific levels of relationship than they are for others. For example if an individual shares 255 cMs with a test subject there is more than a 50% chance that they are related at the level of second cousins and nearly a 100% chance that they are related within the range of first cousins once removed to second cousins once removed — or some equivalent combination of relationships. The following chart from the AncestryDNA Matching White Paper shows the probabilities of different levels of relationship given an observed amount of shared DNA:

going beyond ethnicity estimates in DNA testing

In addition to this resource, we also recommend reviewing information from the Shared Centimorgan Project hosted by Blaine Bettinger, and the autosomal DNA statistics pages available through the International Society of Genetic Genealogy wiki (isogg.org). By considering the likelihood of proposed relationships given shared amounts of DNA, it strengthens the traditional and genetic evidence for genealogical proof.

In a recent case at Legacy Tree, we were assisting an individual to document the relationship between herself and a genetic cousin with an unknown relationship. Based on the amount of DNA they shared in common, they should have been related at the level of third cousins. Nevertheless, comparison of their two trees revealed that neither shared any common surnames, ancestors, or locations in their quite extensive family trees. Additional investigation into their shared matches showed that the match held several genetic cousins in common with the subject, all of whom descended from a specific ancestral couple who lived in the 1880s in Tennessee. Consultation of the client’s match list revealed that she had no genetic cousins from the ancestry of her paternal grandfather, and additional analysis revealed that her father was likely not the biological son of the man he assumed was his father. In another case, we discovered that one genetic cousin shared DNA with a client through their common fourth great-grandfather, and that both of them matched several other descendants of the same man. However, the match’s brother did not share DNA with the client and did not match any of the descendants of the common ancestor of interest. Additional investigation revealed that the match’s brother was in fact a half-sibling. These stories highlight the fact that DNA testing can result in unexpected discoveries that may change the way you view your family, so it is important to tread carefully and be respectful of the feelings of the individuals involved.

Conclusion

Though ethnicity results can be helpful in some cases of genealogical research, there is so much more that can be done with your test results beyond the dinner-conversation topics of your ethnicity admixture. Collaborate with your genetic cousins to connect with living family members and learn information about your shared heritage. Identify your relationships to genetic cousins and document your relationships to each other. Organize your DNA matches to better analyze your test results. Evaluate your shared DNA with your known relatives and determine if your proposed relationships fit with what you would expect. By following the basic principles of collaboration, identification, organization, and evaluation you will be well on your way to making genealogical discoveries using your DNA test results.

Do you have DNA test results and you're not sure what to do or how to use them? Our genetic specialists can analyze your results, organize your matches, and help you contact people. Whatever your research question is, we would love to help you use your DNA results to find the answer. Contact us to discuss the options!

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Pursuing a Career in Genetic Genealogy

Pursuing a career in genetic genealogy was a path I largely had to forge myself.

Today I share what I've learned, what I would do differently, and advice for those interested in pursuing a similar career path.

 

pursuing a career in genetic genealogy
Paul Woodbury, Senior Genetic Genealogist for Legacy Tree Genealogists

Person I just met: “What do you do for work?”

Me: “I’m a genetic genealogist.”

Person I just met: “Wow! I didn’t even know that job existed. How did you get into that?”

I probably have this same conversation (or variations on the same theme) every other day. Since I was sixteen, I knew that I wanted to pursue a career in genetic genealogy. My fascination with genealogy began when I was still very young. I can trace my interest to the family history binder I got from my grandparents on my eighth birthday. Then in 2006 during the Winter Olympics, a television special entitled “African American Lives” aired on PBS, and it introduced me to my chosen career. In the show they shared stories regarding the ancestry and origins of African American celebrities. They used traditional genealogical research but brought in DNA as part of their exploration. I decided then and there that I wanted to be a genetic genealogist. Along those lines, I later attended Brigham Young University, where I majored in genetics and minored in Family History. However, if I could do it over again, I might have switched my focus.

Throughout my undergraduate education my professors had no idea what to do with me. Most of my peers were preparing for medical school or for work in research labs. Many of our professors had emphases in plant genetics. Since I had a very different aim, I struggled in my classes that had limited application to the field of genetics. When I approached my professors requesting advice or references, they were at a loss for where to direct me. While my genetics education provides a strong framework for understanding genetic inheritance and biological concepts, most of the skills I use as a genetic genealogist I learned through informal and on-the-job education.

Most of my education relating specifically to genetic genealogy came through attending conferences, networking with leaders in the field, reading blogs, online forums, and books dedicated to the topic, and working under the guidance of skilled mentors. Because genetic genealogy is a fairly new field, and no two cases are the same, I have also found that much of my genetic genealogy education comes through hands-on experience dealing with real situations. I learn the most as I apply my knowledge towards the resolution of a research goal, and as I search for novel approaches to solve more advanced research problems.

When I first began attending conferences, I would ask those offering classes on genetic genealogy topics what they recommended for those preparing for a career in genetic genealogy. Every one of them told me that I should pursue a masters or Ph.D. in Genetics or Bioinformatics. I ignored their advice. While there is certainly a demand for expertise in those areas, I saw a need (and still see a need) for genealogists who are well-versed in applying genetics to traditional research, rather than vice-versa. As discussed previously, most of what I use daily as a genetic genealogist, I learned outside of my genetics classes. To be a good genetic genealogist, you do not necessarily need to be a geneticist. Nevertheless, to be a good genetic genealogist, you DO need to be a good genealogist.

Genetic testing is increasingly becoming part of reasonably exhaustive research as mandated by the genealogical proof standard. As DNA takes its place as one record among many, good genetic genealogists will need to be well-versed in at least the basics of traditional research, and traditional researchers will need to be well-versed in at least the basics of DNA evidence. Certainly there are specialists in different localities, languages, or types of records, but they exist in relation to larger genealogical practice, evidence analysis, and problem solving. Specialty in genetic genealogy is not a stand-alone emphasis. For any individual planning to pursue genetic genealogy research as a career, I recommend specializing in other traditional research fields as well. I personally specialize in French, Spanish, and Scandinavian research in addition to my emphasis in genetic genealogy.

pursuing a career in genetic genealogy

Even now, genetic genealogy education is mostly offered through conferences and institutes. Some conferences and institutes I have attended (and which regularly offer in-depth courses on genetic genealogy) include the Salt Lake Institute of Genealogy (SLIG), the Southern California Genealogy Jamboree and DNA Day (SCGS), RootsTech, Institute for Genetic Genealogy (I4GG), and the Family Tree DNA Group Administrators Conference. A host of other conferences, institutes, workshops and seminars also provide instruction on genetic genealogy, including national conferences like NGS and FGS, and local society conferences. Online offerings are also on the rise, and one fairly new resource is a 15-week online course dedicated to Genetic Genealogy at Excelsior College (https://genealogy.excelsior.edu/genealogy/genetic-genealogy/).

Conferences are not only valuable for the classes and sessions they provide dedicated to genetic genealogy topics, but also for the opportunities they provide to network with other genealogists and genetic genealogy researchers. By attending RootsTech and other conferences while still a college student, I was able to collaborate and network with leaders in the field of genetic genealogy. Through my correspondence and collaboration with these individuals I have benefited from wonderful relationships and important mentorship opportunities.

Even if you do not have the opportunity to participate in genealogy conferences and network with other professionals, you can still benefit from online communities, forums, and blogs which provide in-depth education regarding genetic genealogy:

Books I recommend for genetic genealogy education:

  • Genetic Genealogy in Practice, by Blaine T. Bettinger and Debbie Parker Wayne
  • NextGen Genealogy: The DNA Connection, by David Dowell
  • The Family Tree Guide to DNA Testing and Genetic Genealogy, by Blaine T. Bettinger

Perhaps the most important challenge for preparing to enter the field of genetic genealogy is gaining experience in the field. As you work with prospective employers and clients it is important to have a portfolio of professional level reports and materials to help increase confidence in your ability. Consider starting work on your own family history. As you compile evidence and proof arguments, be sure to abide by standards of genealogical proof and the genetic genealogy standards. When collaborating with other genetic cousins and relatives, consider pursuing some pro-bono work in helping them with their research problems. When you share your portfolio with clients or prospective employers, don’t be shy. This is your opportunity to show off the full range of your ability, so don’t feel bad about sharing a 30 page report. Since there are currently no organizations offering credentials in genetic genealogy specialty, clients and employers have to depend upon your previous experience in the area. For any research you do, make sure to write it up in a clearly written report.

Even if you are a very good researcher, you cannot be a successful professional genealogist without strong writing and communication skills as well. Even the most brilliant research breakthroughs go unnoticed when they are not effectively communicated. In addition to improving your research skills, work on developing your time management, report writing, and communication skills.

As genealogy becomes a more popular field of inquiry and as more people participate in genetic genealogy testing, demand for DNA interpretation and genetic genealogy research will only increase. Demand for genetic genealogy research services is already high and is rapidly increasing. In my view, demand for genealogy research is driven by disconnect and displacement from cultural roots. Current trends in migration and family structures lend themselves to more frequent disconnect and displacement between families and communities. In many cases, the cultural and familial ties being broken today through refugee crises, adoption, and misattributed parentage have sparse record trails on which we can rely for future genealogy research. As a result, genetic genealogy will play an increasingly important role in genealogy research in the future. It is an exciting time to be involved in the field of genetic genealogy and a great many opportunities are on the horizon. If you plan to join the field, make sure to arm yourself with the education and experience you will need to succeed.

Have you hit a brick wall in your genealogy research, and/or do you want to know how DNA testing might help you trace your family lines? Our team of trained genealogists are experts in both traditional and genetic genealogy, and are ready to assist. Contact us today for a free estimate!

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Before It’s Too Late: DNA Testing Older Relatives NOW

As genealogists we have been encouraged to treat DNA as we would other genealogical records. We are invited to incorporate DNA tests and DNA results as part of proof arguments, we are urged to properly cite DNA evidence and discuss it, analyze it and draw conclusions with it in conjunction with other genealogical records. Increasingly, DNA evidence is becoming part of reasonably exhaustive research under the requirements of the Genealogical Proof Standard. While we have seen major progress in treating DNA as we would other genealogical records, as genealogists we may fall short in our consideration of how other fields and professions treat the same records by which we benefit.

Genealogists research, analyze, interpret, synthesize and cite many different types of records from varied collections and repositories, but the records from which we benefit are often archived, preserved and maintained due to a very different mindset. As family historians, we benefit from the efforts of archivists, historians and curators who acquire, preserve, maintain, digitize, publish and distribute records and artifacts relating to our ancestors. Though their original intent may not have been for the ends of family history, we undoubtedly benefit from their efforts. If our descendants are to benefit from as complete DNA evidence as possible, then we should not only consider DNA from the standpoint of a genealogy researcher, but also from the standpoint of an archivist. We need to acquire, preserve and maintain DNA evidence before it is lost forever. Beyond just performing the testing, we need to make plans for the inheritance of those results, just as we would plan for the inheritance of family heirlooms and documents.

Genealogy & DNA Testing Older RelativesWhy should you consider testing older relatives before exploring your own genetic genealogy? The answer lies in genetic inheritance patterns. There are four types of genetic inheritance patterns which genetic genealogists apply to family history research: mtDNA, Y-DNA, X-DNA and autosomal DNA.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is inherited from an individual’s mother. She, in turn, inherited it from her mother in a line of direct maternal inheritance. Your mitochondrial DNA will be similar if not the same as the mitochondrial DNA of your siblings, your maternal aunts and uncles and many other maternal relatives. The Y-chromosome (Y-DNA), or the male sex chromosome, is inherited by males from their father who, in turn, inherited it from his father in a direct line of paternal inheritance. A male’s Y chromosome will be similar if not the same as the Y-DNA of their full brothers, paternal uncles and other paternal relatives.

Because of the direct inheritance patterns of mitochondrial and Y-DNA, it is possible to determine the Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA signatures of deceased ancestors by selectively testing known individuals. In this regard, it may not be as urgent to complete testing older relatives for their Y-DNA and mtDNA unless they are the last living representatives who carry that DNA. For example, if your father had only daughters and he had no siblings, then it would be important to test his Y-DNA since he may be the last living close relative with that information. You may also want to test his mtDNA for the same reason. Even when there are other relatives who could stand in and represent the DNA rather than testing older relatives, occasionally mutations are introduced in Y-DNA and mtDNA lineages, so it is still a good idea to pursue testing older relatives.

While there may be situations in which you would prioritize testing older relatives for Y-DNA and mtDNA testing, it is more common to prioritize testing older relatives for autosomal DNA testing. Currently there are four major companies offering autosomal DNA testing for the purposes of ancestry: 23andMe, Ancestry.com, Family Tree DNA, and MyHeritage. Each of these tests will include information regarding X-DNA and autosomal DNA. The X chromosome is the female sex chromosome. Males inherit one X chromosome from their mother, whereas females inherit one from their mother and one from their father. Rather than inheriting a second X chromosome, males inherit a Y chromosome from their father. The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes in human cells are known as the autosomal DNA. Each individual inherits 50% of their autosomal DNA from their mother and 50% from their father. Beyond that, they inherit approximately 25% from each grandparent and approximately half the previous amount from every subsequent generation of ancestry. Eventually, due to the random nature of autosomal DNA inheritance, there will be some ancestors from whom an individual does not inherit significant portions of their autosomal DNA.

Any autosomal or X-DNA you inherit from a specific ancestor has to be less than or equal to the amount of DNA that your parent inherited from that same ancestor which in turn is a subset of the DNA that your grandparent inherited from that same ancestor. While your grandmother may share 25% of her DNA with your second great grandparent, you will share only about 6% of your DNA with that same ancestor. The more DNA a test subject shares with an ancestor, the more matches they will have who are related through that same ancestor. The more matches they have who are related through an ancestor of interest, the higher the chance is that they will be able to make genealogical discoveries through collaboration, correspondence and analysis. For these reasons, priority for your autosomal DNA testing should be given to your older relatives who share more DNA in common with your ancestors than you do.

DNA & Genealogy Testing Older Relatives
DNA & Relationship Quick Reference Chart. A free high-resolution download is available at http://www.legacytree.com/dna-relationship-chart

Another way to view this prioritization is through the concept of coverage. By testing yourself, 100% of your autosomal DNA will be represented in a database, 50% of your parents’ DNA will be represented, and 25% of each of your grandparents’ DNA will be represented in the database. Though each individual inherits 50% of their DNA from each parent, siblings inherit different 50% portions. Though they will share some DNA in common with a sibling, they will also carry unique DNA. By testing a sibling, you could obtain approximately 75% coverage of your parents’ DNA and about 37% coverage of each of your grandparents’ DNA. In order to achieve 95% coverage of a deceased parent, on average it is necessary to test 4 of their living children, if they had fewer than 4 children or if they do not have other living descendants, then there are severe limitations on how much of their DNA can be recovered and represented in the database through testing of their descendants.

Beyond testing older relatives, it is also important to provide for the continued maintenance, preservation and inheritance of their DNA data. Family Tree DNA provides a beneficiary form for DNA test results by which you can transfer ownership of the DNA test results to a designated beneficiary in the event of their decease. Make sure that you provide for the continued inheritance of DNA evidence so that the test results can be used long into the future.

By testing older relatives you ensure that their DNA will be represented in the current databases and you increase the chance that future generations will be able to connect with them through these means. Though we as genealogists have begun to treat DNA as we would other records in our analysis, correlation and proof arguments, we also need to start thinking like archivists and dedicate time and effort to acquiring and preserving DNA records so that the information of our ancestors’ DNA will be available for future generations of researchers. Don’t wait until it’s too late. Test your older relatives today!

Need help creating a DNA testing plan of whom to test and why? The experts at Legacy Tree Genealogists can help you devise a strategy to accomplish your genetic genealogy research goals. Contact us today to request a free estimate!

 

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Dealing with Endogamy, Part II: Test Multiple Relatives

In a recent blog post, Dealing with Endogamy: Part I, we explored the unique challenges of interpreting autosomal DNA test results for individuals from endogamous populations. Endogamy is the custom of marrying only within the limits of a local community, clan, or tribe over the course of many generations. Pedigree collapse, a related concept, occurs when two related individuals produce offspring. As a result, the number of unique individuals occupying locations in a pedigree decreases.

Endogamy means that individuals from the same population will frequently share multiple ancestors in common with each other. They also may descend from the same ancestral couple multiple times, which can greatly complicate autosomal DNA analysis.

In the last article on this topic, we discussed the key strategy of reviewing exactly how much DNA genetic cousins share with each other when evaluating their relationships. Here we will discuss another strategy for dealing with endogamy: testing multiple relatives.

Since different descendants of an ancestral couple inherit different segments of DNA, it is always a good idea to invite additional relatives to test when exploring a brick wall problem. Other relatives will have different segments and will therefore have different matches as well. When dealing with endogamous populations, it is particularly important to test as many known relatives as possible. If you are dealing with a case of unknown parentage or adoption, collaborate with your genetic cousins and work with them to test more of their known relatives, focusing first on the older generations of their living family. Even if you know that specific relatives may be related through multiple family lines, test them anyway; their test results will greatly assist in filtering and organizing your matches.

Create Complete Trees

In endogamous populations, it is quite likely that close relatives will be related through multiple family lines. Therefore, it is essential to have trees that are as complete and far back as possible for each relative tested. Since shared segments of DNA may and often do come from more distant relatives in endogamous populations, consider extending family trees 7 generations or more. This will not only permit researchers to identify the multiple ancestors you share in common with the relative, but will also aid in the exploration of the multiple relationships that the relative has with your other relatives and genetic cousins.

In some cases, it may not be possible to build extensive family trees for relatives. Record loss or limited availability may prevent the construction of detailed multi-generation family trees. In these cases, consider documenting and focusing on the ancestral origins rather than ancestral couples. In Ashkenazi Jewish research, do your best to identify the ancestral villages in Eastern Europe for genetic matches. This may help to tie brick wall ancestors to specific localities and regions.

Jewish genetic genealogy and endogamy
An 1881 German map depicting Jewish populations in Europe at that time. The highest densities are represented by the red and darker colors in areas now covering modern-day Poland, Belarus, and Ukraine. Ashkenazi Jews from this part of the world were strongly endogamous, making tracing their genetic ancestry more complicated.

Obtain Shared Segment Data for All Relatives

Though each of the DNA testing companies offers information regarding relatives that a subject holds “in common with” genetic cousins (also known as ICW), in order to be useful in the investigations of endogamy, researchers must also have access to the actual test results of other tested relatives. It is not enough to know that a genetic cousin matches a known relative. In an endogamous population we can expect that most members of the population match many other members of the population. We also need to know how much DNA they share with that relative.

In one case at Legacy Tree Genealogists, we were attempting to identify the father of a client. Both of the client’s parents were members of an endogamous population. When we tested the client’s mother, we found that nearly all the client’s matches were also related at some level to the client’s mother. However, by reviewing the amounts of DNA that the client and her mother shared in common with her matches, we discovered that many of the client’s matches shared significantly more DNA with the client than they did with her mother – an impossibility if they were only related through the client’s maternal ancestry. Through the test results of the client’s mother, we were able to determine which matches were related only through the client’s paternal ancestry, which were related only through the maternal ancestry, and which matches were related through both the maternal and paternal sides of the client’s ancestry. By comparing the segments they shared in common with matches from both sides, we were also able to determine which segments of DNA shared between the client and her matches were maternal in origin and which ones were paternal in origin. Using these results, we were eventually able to narrow the search down to just a handful of candidates despite the complexity of the client’s matches. This would have been impossible without the test results of the client’s mother and other close known maternal relatives.

Exploring Averages and Assigning Segments

Testing multiple relatives and obtaining access to the test results for multiple relatives allows researchers to evaluate relationships between a match and a larger group of known relatives. By calculating the amounts of DNA shared between a genetic cousin and multiple relatives, it is possible to more accurately estimate the nature of relationships. Knowing that a subject shares 200 cMs with a genetic cousin, and that three first cousins of the subject share 69, 139, and 150 cMs (average of 139 cMs) with the same genetic cousin might lead us to estimate that the match is related at the level of second cousins once removed or some equivalent relationship rather than at the level of full second cousins. By averaging between multiple relatives, researchers can identify the most likely level of relationship.

Access to the test results of relatives also permits the investigation of unique shared segments of DNA which could be representative of how much DNA a match might have shared with the common ancestor of multiple known relatives. Performing this type of research with multiple close relatives can also aid in chromosome mapping which in turn can identify the segments of DNA that were inherited from a specific brick wall ancestor. Assigning segments of DNA to particular ancestral lines and sifting through the relationships between multiple family members enables researchers to identify and focus on the most pertinent matches to a particular research question.

Direct Line Tests

Autosomal DNA analysis in endogamous populations can get messy quickly, so testing additional relatives with direct line tests and encouraging genetic cousins to do the same can help to narrow the possible relationships and can give increased structure to the investigation. Wherever possible, attempt to perform DNA testing of specific relatives in order to determine the Y-DNA signatures of each great-grandfather and the mtDNA signatures of each grandparent. Encourage genetic cousins to do the same for their own family. Direct-line tests can serve as anchors and guides for interpretation of autosomal DNA test results and can identify family groups within a single pedigree that are likely related to each other.

DNA analysis can be tricky, and endogamous ancestry makes it that much more difficult. If you're struggling to piece together your genetic family tree or identify a parent, grandparent, or other relative, Legacy Tree Genealogists can help. Contact us today for a free consultation. 

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Dealing with Endogamy, Part I: Exploring Amounts of Shared DNA

shared DNA
King Charles II of Spain (b. 1661) was part of the royal Habsburg clan, well-known for their frequent intermarriage between family members.

Autosomal DNA testing is a valuable resource for genealogists seeking to overcome recent brick walls in their family history, particularly in instances where traditional historical research is limited or unavailing. At Legacy Tree Genealogists, we frequently use autosomal DNA test results to answer questions regarding adoption, unknown paternity, or difficult to trace ancestors. To learn more about autosomal DNA testing see our previous blog post on the basics.

Endogamy is the custom of marrying only within the limits of a local community, clan, or tribe over the course of many generations. The reasons for this genetic isolation could be cultural or religious (as with Ashkenazi Jews and Low-German Mennonites) or geographic (as with island and tribal populations). Members of endogamous populations may descend from a limited pool of “founder” ancestors who represented the initial genetic makeup of their population. After many generations and hundreds of years of isolation from outside pedigrees, autosomal DNA markers converge within endogamous populations. As a result, genetic profiles of population members can easily be distinguished from the DNA of outside populations.[1]

Pedigree collapse occurs when two related individuals produce offspring. As a result, the number of unique individuals occupying locations in a pedigree decreases or collapses. Whereas most people have eight unique great-grandparents, a child of two first cousins will only have six unique great-grandparents. They will also have inherited a larger portion of their DNA from the ancestors held in common between their parents. Though a related concept, pedigree collapse is not the same as endogamy. However, recent cases of pedigree collapse in an individual’s tree and long term endogamy can have similar effects on DNA inheritance. When practiced over multiple generations and over the course of several hundred years, continued pedigree collapse can lead to endogamy.

As a result of endogamy, individuals from the same population will frequently share multiple ancestors in common with each other. They also may descend from the same ancestral couple multiple times, which can greatly complicate autosomal DNA analysis. In one of our research cases, we found that an individual descended 12 different times from the same ancestral couple who lived in the late 1600s in French Canada. Although they were quite distant ancestors in every case (within the range of 9th-11th great grandparents), he had inherited a disproportionate amount of DNA from them due to their heavy representation within his family tree.

In this and a future blog post, we will explore two keys for dealing with endogamy in autosomal DNA test results: 1) Exploring the exact amounts of shared DNA between relatives; and 2) Testing multiple relatives. In this post we will address the first of these strategies.

Measurements of Shared DNA

Amounts of shared DNA are communicated in autosomal DNA test results in one of two ways: as a percentage of the total autosomal DNA, or in centimorgans. Centimorgans are a unit of measurement commonly used in genetics to specify how much DNA two individuals share in common. They are actually measures of recombination and express the likelihood that two locations on a DNA strand are inherited together. Centimorgans are measured on a logarithmic scale. Typically, segments on the ends of a DNA strand have higher centimorgan values than those in the center because segments on the end are more likely to recombine than segments in the center. Larger segments with high centimorgan values typically suggest that two individuals share a recent common ancestor. For different levels of relationship, we observe different levels of expected shared percentages and centimorgans. These estimates can be found at http://isogg.org/wiki/Autosomal_DNA_statistics.

In endogamous populations, genetic cousins may share much more DNA than would be expected given their closest relationship. This may be due to the fact that in addition to being a third cousin, they are also a double 6th cousin, a 5th cousin once removed, a triple fourth cousin and a half 4th cousin twice removed. As you explore your relationships to genetic cousins, be sure to consider all possible sources of shared DNA.

Calculating the Coefficient of Relationship

One useful equation that can help to explore and evaluate relationships is the coefficient of relationship (CofR = ∑(1/2)n). This coefficient communicates the estimated amount of shared DNA between two individuals who are related through multiple family lines. It is calculated by raising ½ to the number of generational steps between an individual and their relative (n). This is calculated for each relationship and then summed for all pertinent relationships. It is important to remember that the coefficient of relationship is calculated through every common ancestor, not through every common ancestral couple. Therefore, if two individuals share a common ancestral couple in common, there will be two elements which contribute to the final coefficient. Also, very distant relationships may or may not result in shared DNA, so the coefficient may not always be representative of the observed amounts of shared DNA. The coefficient is a better representation of the total expected amount of DNA rather than the actual amount of DNA that two relatives will share. However, if the calculated coefficient is much lower than the observed amount of shared DNA, then this could indicate that there are additional relationships between the subject and the match which have not yet been identified – some of which could be beyond a brick wall.

Runs of Homozygosity and Fully Identical Regions

In order to accurately evaluate DNA test results in endogamous populations, consider exactly how much DNA two individuals share in common. Most genetic matches will only share DNA segments on one copy of their chromosomes either maternal or paternal. However, if both of an individual’s parents are from the same endogamous population, or are known close relatives to each other, then they may have a “Run of Homozygosity,” or a region of their DNA where the maternal copy is identical to the paternal copy. In these cases, the subject is a genetic match to themselves. If another genetic cousin overlaps in this same region of DNA, then the amount of DNA they share in common with the test subject should be doubled for that particular segment since they match the maternal copy and the paternal copy.

Doubling of shared DNA segments can also occur between matches if they share multiple recent common ancestral couples, as is the case with double cousins. If double cousins have fathers who are brothers, and mothers who are sisters, then they may match each other in fully identical regions through shared DNA on their paternal and maternal chromosomes even if they do not personally have runs of homozygosity.

None of the testing companies report total amounts of shared DNA which take into account runs of homozygosity or fully identical regions. However, these regions can be discovered through analysis at Gedmatch.com and through David Pike’s utilities, and might be used to confirm and refine the total amounts of shared DNA between two individuals.[2] However, the researcher must have access to test results for both the subject and the genetic match in order to perform these comparisons.

Applying Different Centimorgan Thresholds

In endogamous populations, much of the population shares extremely small segments of DNA from many distant ancestors. If these small segments of DNA are included as part of the total shared DNA between two individuals, it can skew the estimates for how closely they might actually be related. At Family Tree DNA, all segments larger than 1 cM are included as part of the total shared DNA. At Ancestry, all segments larger than 5 cMs are included; however, some larger segments may be excluded based on their matching algorithms. At 23andMe all segments larger than 5 cMs are included as part of the total. Depending on the nature of the endogamous population, it may be beneficial to recalculate the total amounts of shared DNA between matches through comparison at Gedmatch and through application of higher centimorgan thresholds. For example an individual may share 120 centimorgans at Family Tree DNA, but when segments smaller than 7 cMs are excluded, this total may drop to 60 or 70 and may be more representative of the nature of their closest relationship. The appropriate threshold to apply in any given case will depend on the amount of endogamy within a population and whether the test subject is a full member of that population or has recent admixture from outside populations. Consider calculating several totals using different thresholds to give a better indication and overview of the shared DNA.

Want to learn more? READ PART TWO HERE.

Calculating exact levels of expected and observed shared DNA and applying different thresholds for total calculations can help to overcome some of the challenges of autosomal analysis in endogamous populations. If you struggle with endogamy in your autosomal DNA test results, Legacy Tree would be happy to assist you in your research. Contact us today for a free consultation.

[1] Angie Bush, “Cousin Marriage and Endogamy” in “Course Introduction and Overview,” in Advanced DNA Analysis Techniques, Salt Lake Institute of Genealogy, 2016.

[2] Are your parents related? Gedmatch.com, accessed October 2016; and David Pike, “Search for Runs of Homozygosity (ROHs),” David Pike’s Utilities, www.math.mun.ca, accessed October 2016.  

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How to Prepare for a Family History Trip

preparing for a family history tripAfter identifying and documenting your ancestry (including the crucial step of determining your family’s foreign hometown), a natural next goal might be to visit the sites, scenes, and places where your ancestors lived and died. Genealogy and research tours can be exciting and enlightening, but require ample preparation. Paul Woodbury, Legacy Tree’s Outreach Manager and genetic genealogist, has made several such trips of his own. Below, he shares some tips both from his personal experience and from things we at LTG have done to help others prepare for family history tours.

FAMILY HISTORY TRIP GOALS

As with any genealogy research undertaking, an important first consideration is a clear definition of your goal(s) for the trip. Are you hoping to extend your ancestry further through documents which are only available onsite by means of an archive or church? Are you hoping to visit the places where your ancestors lived and worked? Are you hoping to connect with distant cousins? Any of these efforts are worthy endeavors, and each requires sufficient preparation to make sure they can be met.

DOCUMENTS

If one of your goals on a genealogy tour is to obtain additional information regarding your ancestors and their origins, make sure that you have thoroughly exhausted the resources already available online and on microfilm. There is nothing quite as disappointing as making the journey to a  distant archive only to realize that it is closed for a holiday, or that the records you were hoping to consult are already available online.

To avoid such mishaps, make a detailed research plan of the types of documents you would like to consult and identify where those documents are held. Consider contacting the archives you hope to visit several weeks in advance to ensure that the records are accessible and that the archive will be open. Many archives have published catalogs of their holdings which you can purchase from the archive, access online, or consult at the Family History Library.

Contacting archivists and researchers onsite may also help you in the development of a research plan as they may have suggestions for record types and collections that you may not have considered. With ample notice of your arrival, they can prepare to work with you directly and assist you in your family history research. They can have the documents you are hoping to access ready for you upon your arrival. Depending on the primary language of the country you’re visiting, it may also be helpful to enlist the services of a local researcher for translation help. While archival staff in many places throughout the world speak at least some English, it’s best to be prepared in case they don’t! Keep in mind that different records in the same archive can be kept in a variety of languages as well, so it may be best to find a translator who can read several different languages.

PLACES

One of the most exciting parts of a research trip can be visiting the places where your ancestors worked, socialized, worshipped, and lived – though this can be tricky. Sometimes it is impossible to determine the specific address where a particular family may have lived. The home where they resided may have since been destroyed or rebuilt, or they may have lived in the area before the advent of records which documented their residence. Even if you are able to find a specific address, sometimes street names have been changed and the numbering recalibrated.

On a recent genealogy research tour, we found that the client’s ancestors lived in a section of Glasgow, Scotland that has since been torn down and turned into a shopping mall. Even though the client was unable to see the original tenements where their ancestor lived, they were able to visit several museums that detailed what life was like more generally during that time period and place.

On another research tour, I worked with a local parish priest to identify the homes where my ancestors lived. Some of them were still owned by family members centuries later, and others had been abandoned for decades. One of the homes visited was decorated with engravings made by my fifth great-grandfather in the early 1800s, which detailed the creator’s genealogy back five generations! (I recently spoke with Extreme Genes radio host Scott Fisher about this story. For more detail, you can listen here, beginning at the 0:25:09 mark in the podcast.)

preparing for a family history trip

If you cannot pinpoint a place of residence, consider visiting churches, schools, and places of work which they may have frequented as part of their daily life. This, too, can be rewarding. On a research trip to Denmark, I found amazing murals in the 16th century parish church where my ancestors were baptized, married, and buried. Though the tombs where they were actually interred had long since been dug up and reused, it was still exciting to see the scenes and paintings that they experienced on a weekly basis – some of which were quite gruesome!

Some records that may provide more information about addresses and locations of residences include maps, tax records, civil registration, censuses, and land records. Collaboration with other living family members and distant cousins can also help to pinpoint the exact location of an ancestral homestead. In order to reconstruct the nature of your ancestors’ daily lives, it may also be necessary to take a step back and look at the history of the village, town, or city where they lived. Don’t miss the forest for the trees and don’t miss the local history museum down the street from where your ancestor lived.

STORIES

Another important element of any genealogy tour is an exploration of the stories associated with the places you will be visiting. Before you arrive, make sure to document and record what you have already discovered regarding your family. When exploring the biographical details of your own ancestors’ lives, make sure to search out additional information regarding the area and its culture through local historians, museums and newspapers. Search for historical context for their lives. With sufficient preparation, you may be able to eat at the pub where your great-grandpa was arrested for getting into a brawl. You can visit the farmer’s market where your ancestors sold their produce for generations, or you can tour the site of the woolen mills where your ancestor worked as a weaver.

In preparation for a recent genealogy tour, one individual discovered that their ancestor worked at the New Lanark mill in Scotland. In recent years, this mill has been renovated and turned into a UNESCO World Heritage site with detailed working displays on the weaving process, what life was like in New Lanark during the time period it was in operation, renovated workers housing, and beautiful hikes and gardens. While visiting, they also had the opportunity to visit the onsite archives for the mills and find records regarding their ancestor’s time there. Even if the mill or factory where your ancestor lived or worked is no longer standing, search for nearby sites that could give an idea of what their life was like.

preparing for a family history trip
The New Lanark woolen mills in Scotland.

PEOPLE

Connecting with living cousins who remained in the area where your ancestors lived is an amazing experience. To identify living relatives, consider searching compiled genealogies relating to your own ancestors. If your ancestors appear in someone else’s family tree, then they may have a distant relationship to you. Also consider working with onsite agents who are more familiar with the local genealogies and families, or even going the DNA route. Genetic testing can connect you with cousins who share the same DNA from your common ancestors.

In one recent research trip, I connected with a 2nd cousin three times removed. She was the last living great-grandchild of our common ancestors and her family had been unaware of the fate of their American family since the time that ancestor left for the U.S. in 1870. She was delighted to learn of their exploits in the American west and was excited to share the stories she knew of her own family who remained in France. Through this connection, I obtained several photographs of the French family members that remained in France and made valuable contacts onsite for future research.

If making a trip to the onsite location of your ancestors sounds like something you’re interested in but is perhaps beyond your skill level or time, Legacy Tree Genealogists would be happy to assist you with a plan. We have extensive experience identifying the archives, collections, and records you should consult; can assist you with locating places that would be of interest to visit; and can also perform descendancy research and/or analyze your DNA results to help you try to identify living relatives in the area. Please note, however, that we can never guarantee specific results (you never know what you'll find until you start looking!) and that most research of this sort takes a minimum of 10-12 weeks (often longer), so consulting with a professional genealogist early should be one more item on your list of preparations to take care of before booking plane tickets.

Whether it be to search for additional records, visit the places your ancestors lived, discover the stories of your ancestors’ lives, or connect with living relatives, following these tips can help you to make the most of your genealogy tour. With ample preparation it is sure to be a wonderful experience.

Let Legacy Tree Genealogists help you in your preparation so you can make the most of your trip. Contact us today for a free consultation.

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How the X-Chromosome Solved a 100-Year-Old Adoption Mystery

We frequently receive requests from adoptees, foundlings, individuals with unknown paternity, and their descendants to assist in identifying biological ancestors. In a recent case we performed, we were able to use DNA test results to identify the biological parents of a client’s mother. Analysis of the X-chromosome held the key to determining the correct ancestral couple. Here we share their story. (In order to protect privacy, names have been changed.)

Lauren is the daughter of a woman named Mary Stoddard who was adopted in 1916 in Alabama. The organization that handled Mary’s adoption is no longer extant, and their records were destroyed in a fire. Additionally, our initial efforts to extend the client’s ancestry using traditional adoption methodologies were unfruitful, so we turned to DNA testing. The client subsequently performed DNA tests at several of the DNA testing companies.

We first took a step back and attempted to identify likely ancestors of the client’s mother. Lauren had several paternal relatives who had performed DNA testing, so we used their relationships to Lauren’s genetic cousins to eliminate paternal matches from our investigation.

Once we had identified likely maternal relatives, we estimated the nature of the relationships that the client had with her closest genetic cousins based on the number of centimorgans they shared in common. Centimorgans are a unit of measurement commonly used in genetics to specify how much DNA two individuals share in common. Up to the level of third cousins, relatives will share distinct and fairly predictable levels of DNA which can be used to estimate their relationship.

Next, we identified how the client’s genetic cousins were related to each other. When a test subject’s genetic cousins are also genetically related to one another, it can be extrapolated that their common ancestors are likely the source of their shared DNA with the test subject.

Finally, we incorporated the estimated relationships into documented genealogies to identify the client’s ancestors. Following these steps we were able to identify Mary’s grandparents, but we were still unable to determine the names of her parents. So far, we had only deduced that one was a child of Joe Jones and Laura Adams and the other was a child of Marion Smith and Alice Rogers.

The trees and shared cM values for her maternal great-grandparents and their descendants are shown in the accompanying diagrams.

chart 1

 

chart 2

Joe Jones and Laura Adams had five children: Martha, Charles, Joseph, Jennie, and Lula. We knew that Martha was not the mother of Mary since she was the ancestor of Match 1, and if she had been the mother, then Lauren and Match 1 would have shared much more DNA in common. We also suspected that it was not Lula since she would have only been 13 years old at the time of Mary’s conception. So that left us with three candidates: Charles, Joseph, and Jennie.

The other set of grandparents, Marion Smith and Alice Rogers, had ten children: Lou, Betty, Connor, Christopher, Edward, Vaughn, Frank, Alonzo, Philomena and Nancy. However, only the three oldest children, Lou, Betty, and Connor, were old enough to have been a parent of Mary. Even then, Connor was quite young, since he was only 15 at the time of Mary’s conception.

Through traditional genealogical research, we narrowed our search to just two possible couples who in 1915, at the time of Mary’s conception, were living in the same town in northern Alabama where Mary had been born. This led to the conclusion that either Mary was the daughter of Charles Jones and Betty Smith or she was the daughter of Lou Smith and Jennie Jones.

Next, we transferred the client’s test results to Gedmatch.com, a third-party site which allows analysis of shared segment data. Through one of the client’s X chromosome matches, we were able to determine the identity of Mary’s parents.

Lauren shared 48 cMs and a large segment on the X chromosome in common with Match 6. This X chromosome match also was a genetic cousin to Match 3 who was a descendant of Marion Smith and Alice Rogers. Through traditional research we determined that Match 3 and match 6 shared ancestry through their common ancestors Arnold Wood and Susan Sorenson – the maternal grandparents of Marion Smith.

chart 3

The X-chromosome is the female sex chromosome. Males have one X chromosome that they inherit from their mother. Females have two X chromosomes: one that they inherit from their mother, and one that they inherit from their father. Like autosomal DNA, X chromosomes undergo a process called recombination which shuffles the DNA before it is passed on to the next generation. For the X chromosome, significant recombination can only occur when it is passed through a female. Therefore, for females, the paternally inherited X chromosome definitely comes from their paternal grandmother, as the X chromosome cannot be passed through two successive generations of males.

If Mary was the daughter of Lou Smith and Jennie Jones, then at any given site on Lauren’s maternal X-DNA there is a 25% chance that she inherited that DNA from Alice Rogers, a 12% chance that she inherited it from Julia Rockwood, and a 12% chance that she inherited if from Laura Adams. If this were the case, she could not have inherited any DNA from Celesta Wood since she would have been Mary’s father’s father’s mother.

If Mary was the daughter of Charles Jones and Betty Smith, then at any given site on Lauren’s X-DNA there is a 25% chance that she inherited the DNA from Laura Adams, a 12% chance that she inherited DNA from Celesta Wood and a 12% chance that she inherited DNA from Alice Rogers. She could not have inherited DNA from Julia Rockwood.

Since only one pairing of the candidates could explain the shared DNA on the X chromosome which came from Celesta Wood, we concluded that the parents of Mary Stoddard were Charles Jones and Betty Smith.

Using estimated relationships based on amounts of shared DNA, confirmed genetic relationships between cousins, documented family trees, and the X-chromosome, we successfully identified the parents of the client’s mother. This research also led to the discovery of five of Mary’s half-siblings and their children.

If you're adopted or have an adopted family member, or would simply like to see what DNA analysis can do for your family tree, contact Legacy Tree Genealogists for a free consultation.