maj 29, 2020 by Paul - Legacy Tree Genealogists Researcher 2 Comments

To Test or Not to Test – An Excellent Question

“Should I take a DNA test?” We evaluate the reasons for – and against- taking a DNA test.

*This article originally appeared in NGS Magazine, and is reprinted with permission.

The first hurdle a researcher may face as they contemplate engaging with the growing field of genetic genealogy may be the decision of whether or not to take a DNA test in the first place. While DNA testing is increasingly useful for the genealogist, the power of genetic genealogy to reveal surprising or unexpected information, and its current and potential future uses are reasons to pause and consider the options.

DNA testing is becoming an increasingly important and mainstream part of genealogy research, but before engaging in DNA testing, customers should consider the benefits and risks of performing a DNA test.
*Tony Webster, “Home DNA Testing Kit,” Flickr (https://www.flickr.com), CC BY 2.0.*

From its beginnings in the early 2000s, genetic genealogy has grown as an increasingly pertinent and prominent sub-field of the larger field of genealogical research. While DNA testing for genealogical purposes was initially limited to specific circumstances and was primarily confined to Y-DNA and mitochondrial DNA investigations, the advent of direct-to-consumer autosomal DNA tests has sparked an explosion in genealogical DNA testing. Indeed, the reasons to test are many and varied – so much so that even the non-genealogist may find gems of interest. For those readers who have not yet tested, this article may offer considerations to aid in your decision of whether or not to test. For other readers who have already performed DNA testing, this article might be an aid as you invite your relatives to test with informed consent.

To Test:

Ethnicity Admixture Reports

One common motivation for performing a DNA test is to obtain an ethnicity admixture report. Indeed, ethnicity reports have been a major marketing point for some of the most successful DNA testing companies. Particularly for individuals who descend from diaspora populations, discovering the percentages of DNA that originate from different areas of the globe can influence perceptions of identity and belonging. While ethnicity estimates are based on solid science, they are still quite broad in their predictions and are continually being refined through improvement of company algorithms and reference databases. Ethnicity estimates can provide broad geographic context for a test taker’s family history, but their meaningful use as part in-depth genealogical investigation is limited. Ethnicity estimates are only the very beginning of what can be discovered using DNA evidence.

Connecting with Additional Biological Relatives

Family history research often grows into a collaborative effort as researchers attempt to compile and locate the traces of their ancestors’ documentary and family legacy. Just as family stories, heirlooms, and information are frequently distributed and dispersed among the descendants of an ancestor, so too is their DNA – their genetic legacy. Genetic testing enables researchers to connect with long lost and unknown relatives from distant branches of their family tree. Sometimes those relatives have additional information on shared ancestors that was lost to a researcher’s own branch of the family. DNA testing can help researchers connect with genetic cousins who may hold the keys to long-standing family mysteries and who may be open to further collaboration and teamwork in uncovering family history stories.

DNA tests can connect users with biological relatives. Just as the traces of an ancestor’s life are frequently distributed among descendants, so too is DNA. Collaboration with genetic cousins can help solve family history puzzles and unlock family history mysteries.

Working to Overcome Brick Walls

Sometimes document research can only take a researcher so far in the investigation of their family story. Record destruction, elusive ancestors, adoptions, cases of unknown or misattributed parentage, and ancestors with common names are just some of the many reasons why research in documentary evidence aimed at extending an ancestral line might come to a standstill. In each case, DNA testing may help break through a brick walled research problem. Alternatively, it might help others who are working through their own brick-wall problems. Brick wall problems are often solved through analysis of the test results of many individuals, exploration of shared matches between individuals, identification of likely relatives of a brick-wall ancestor, perhaps some targeted testing and eventual identification of the right people in the right place at the right time to be parents or close family members of an individual. However, just as DNA testing can help resolve long-standing mysteries in a researcher’s family tree, they can also reveal unexpected and surprising results.

Preserving DNA Evidence for Future Generations

Given the short history of DNA testing for genealogical purposes, it is common to consider DNA testing in terms of what researchers can learn about their own ancestors. However, DNA testing also preserves genetic information for future generations of descendants. 100 years from now, descendants and relatives of test takers will hopefully continue to benefit from the tests that are performed today. Their genetic inheritance and connections to previous and deceased generations will provide strong evidence and reminders of their ancestral heritage and ties.

DNA testing can help users overcome genealogy brick walls where traditional document research has come to a standstill. Attribution: Matthew Paul Argall, “Brick walls in sunlight and darkness,” https://www.flickr.com, accessed September 2019. (CC BY 2.0). https://www.flickr.com/photos/79157069@N03/44613876481

Confirming Proposed Genealogies and Achieving Genealogical Proof for Biological Relationships

Even for researchers who have successfully extended their own family trees through thorough document research, genetic genealogy testing can help to confirm that genealogies constructed through document evidence are biologically accurate. Some studies estimate historic rates of misattributed parentage to be around 2-5%. However, it is likely that the rate of misattributed parentage is at least, in part, dependent on the population and historical time frame being studied. Even assuming a low rate of misattributed parentage, many if not most individuals will have at least one case of misattributed parentage within the first several generations of their family tree. Even if they do not have a case of misattributed parentage among their own direct ancestors, it is extremely likely that there will be a case of misattributed parentage in at least one of their collateral lines of relationship resulting in the identification of unknown collateral relatives or identification of half-relationships previously assumed to be full relationships. Prior to widespread DNA testing, genealogies based on document evidence were typically assumed to be biologically representative. Now that DNA testing is an option for consideration, however, genealogical standards dictate that differentiation should be made between social and biological genealogies. Genealogies purporting to be biologically accurate must be supported by genetic evidence.

Not to Test:

Family Secrets

Just as DNA testing can help resolve long-standing mysteries in a researcher’s family tree, they can also reveal unexpected and surprising results. These surprise discoveries can “evoke strong emotions and [have] the potential to alter [a researcher’s] life and worldview.” Researchers may discover troubling or traumatic information about their heritage or family history including but not limited to:

the discovery that they were adopted
the discovery that the man who raised them is not their biological father.
the discovery that they were conceived by a donor
the discovery of previously unknown siblings, half-siblings, parents, or descendants.
the discovery that an ancestor was the victim of rape or incest.
the discovery that an ancestor adopted multiple identities because of his or her criminal activities.

While researchers might anticipate how they might react to these discoveries, anticipated reactions can differ from real reactions when faced with one of these scenarios.

Current and Future Uses

*Some companies are collaborating with law enforcement or have permitted law enforcement access to their databases to aid in catching violent criminals.*

In addition to genealogical investigation, some DNA testing companies may use or enable use of DNA data for additional purposes. 23andMe, AncestryDNA and MyHeritage all may use or enable use of an individual’s genetic data as part of in-house or third-party research after obtaining informed consent from their customers. These research studies may deal with evolutionary history, medical studies, personalized medicine, pharmaceutical development, human history and other topics. Family Tree DNA and GEDmatch.com permit law enforcement agencies to utilize their databases for investigations involving violent crimes. While Family Tree DNA and GEDmatch currently limit law enforcement use of their databases to violent crimes, it is possible that this could change in the future and may be utilized by international jurisdictions. Meanwhile, 23andMe, AncestryDNA and MyHeritage resist sharing genetic information with law enforcement unless compelled to do so by valid legal processes. Also, while legislation in the United States currently protects individuals against discrimination in health insurance and employment, this law does not prevent other forms of genetic discrimination. Finally, the ways in which genetic evidence is used today might be very different from the potential uses of DNA in the future. Any number of factors including changes in governments, legislation, or regulation could affect the way in which genetic data can or cannot be used.

Anonymity and Privacy

While it is possible to disguise the identity of a particular test-taker through undecipherable usernames, and controlling what data is shared, it is not possible to guarantee complete privacy or anonymity for an individual who agrees to perform DNA testing. Also, because genetic genealogy research relies on collaborative research efforts, it is possible and even likely that test takers will be contacted by family members in relation to their test results either through the company messaging systems or by other means of contact obtained through compiled public records.

Legality

Not all DNA tests are offered in all countries and jurisdictions. Before performing a DNA test, researchers should consider whether or not they can legally perform DNA testing in the jurisdiction in which they live.

Usefulness for Research Objectives

In some cases, DNA testing may not be helpful for addressing a specific research question. If an ancestor lived prior to the mid-eighteenth century, autosomal DNA testing may not be as helpful for extending their ancestral line. If a researcher aims to identify the progenitors of more distant ancestors through DNA testing, Y-DNA or mitochondrial DNA testing may need to be pursued. If those testing options are not possible in the context of a case, then it may not be possible to rely on genetic evidence to aid in solving the problem. Nevertheless, DNA tests are constantly changing as more individuals perform testing and though a particular problem may not be solvable today, it may be solvable in the future. By performing DNA testing, users preserve their own genetic signature for future generations.

*Just as all genealogists benefit from the preservation of records and documents relating to our ancestors’ lives, future generations will benefit from the genetic preservation of test takers’ DNA.*

An Excellent Question

To test or not to test? It is an excellent question and in the end after weighing pertinent considerations and factors, each test taker must make that decision themselves. Before performing a DNA test, a customer should consider the risks, benefits, opportunities and potential concerns associated with genetic testing. Each individual should be aware of how their DNA might be used and come to their own conclusion of whether or not to perform DNA testing.

On one hand, genetic genealogy testing can reveal surprising information; it might be used for medical, pharmaceutical, and law enforcement investigations; its future uses are uncertain and uncharted; anonymity of test results cannot be guaranteed; DNA testing is not legal in some jurisdictions; and it may not be useful for particular research questions. On the other hand, DNA testing can help individuals better understand their ethnic origins and can help in the formation of their identity; they can connect users with biological family members and genealogy collaborator; they can assist in breaking through research brick walls; they can preserve genetic evidence for use by future generations; they can assist users in confirming the biological accuracy of their family trees. Each side of this decision carries valid concerns and important opportunities. Consider the opportunities, consider the options, consider the concerns.

If you’ve taken a DNA test and need help analyzing the results, or if you have a genealogy question you think DNA might be able to help answer, we would love to help! Contact us to discuss your questions and goals, and we’ll help you choose a project option and get started.

¹ J.M. Greaff and J.C. Erasmus, “Three hundred years of low non-paternity in a human population,” in Heredity (2015 Nov; 115 (5): 396-404, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed July 2019.

² Leah Larkin, “MPEs, Probabilities, and Why You Need DNA, Even if Your Think You Don’t,” The DNA Geek (blog), 5 October 2017, https://thednageek.com/mpes-probabilities-and-why-you-need-dna-even-if-you-think-you-dont/, accessed July 2019.

³ Board for the Certification of Genealogists, Genealogy Standards. 2^nd ed. (Washington D.C.: Ancestry.com, 2019), 32.

⁴ 23andMe, “Terms of Service,” section 5, https://www.23andme.com/about/tos/, accessed July 2019.

november 15, 2019 by Paul - Legacy Tree Genealogists Researcher 79 Comments

How Do I Determine Genetically Equivalent Relationships?

An understanding of genealogical relationships is necessary before diving into genetically equivalent relationships in your family history. This article will provide an overview of both concepts.

Correctly evaluating shared DNA within the context of genetically equivalent relationships first requires mastery of genealogical relationships. Here we review important genealogical relationships based on some of the pertinent variables. For the sake of simplicity, we limit our analysis to biological relatives and exclude in-law and step relationships.

Immediate Family: These relationships are straightforward: father, mother, sister, brother, son and daughter.

Immediate Family of Ancestors: Your mother’s brother is your maternal uncle. Your father’s sister is your paternal aunt. Your sibling’s child is a niece or nephew. Considering the immediate family members of more distant generations gets more complicated: Your grandfather’s sister is a grand-aunt (sometimes referred to as a great-aunt). The brother of your second great grandmother or (great-great-grandmother) is your second great granduncle (or great-great-granduncle). The relationship to a sibling of an ancestor carries the same prefixes as the relationship to that ancestor. Therefore, a sibling of your third great grandfather will be your third great grand-uncle.

Cousins of the same generation: A first cousin is a child of your aunt or uncle – another grandchild of your common grandparents through a unique descent line. A second cousin is a grandchild of your grand uncle – another great grandchild of your common great grandparents through a unique descent line. If you and a cousin share the same third-great-grandparents, then you are fourth cousins to each other. The number associated with the cousin level is one more than the number of greats in the relationship level of your common ancestors. Therefore, fourth cousins share 3^rd great grandparents, fifth cousins share 4^th great grandparents and so on. Keep in mind that your relationship to others is dependent on your most recent shared ancestors and not their shared relationships to others. Therefore, you can have third cousins who are in turn, siblings, first cousins or second cousins to each other.

Removed relationships: When you and a relative are not of the same generation, then we describe the relationship by the number of generations removed. Your mother’s first cousin is a first cousin once removed, and you are the generation removed. Your first cousin’s son is also a first cousin once removed, but he is the generation removed. Your grandmother’s second cousin is a second cousin twice removed, and you are two generations removed. Your third cousin’s son is a third cousin once removed, and he is the generation removed. If your head is spinning, consider reviewing our article, “Third Cousins Twice Removed and Consanguinity: Figuring Out How You're Related to Your Relatives”.

Half relationships: Most relatives share two ancestors in common – a man and a woman who are both members of an ancestral couple. When two individuals share only one common ancestor, we consider them to be half relatives. A son of your mother by a man other than your father is a maternal half-brother. A grandson of your grandfather descended from a woman other than your grandmother is a half first cousin. Note that half relationships only apply if you descend from different partners or spouses of your common ancestor at the generation of your most recent common ancestor. If two of your first cousins were born to your uncle by different spouses, they will still both be first cousins to you even if they are half siblings to each other.

Genetically Equivalent Relationships

Once potential relationships have been estimated, consider genetically equivalent relationships and the genealogical context of a match’s tree. The amount of DNA that two individuals are expected to share with each other depends on the number of generational steps between them and their common ancestor(s). Thus, second cousins and first cousins twice removed are both expected to share similar amounts of DNA since both levels of relationship include six generational steps. In most cases, two genetic cousins will be related through two common ancestors: an ancestral couple. When two individuals only share one ancestor, the amount of DNA they are expected to share in common is cut in half which is equivalent to adding another generational step. As a result, some levels of relationship are genetically equivalent. Half siblings (2 generational steps with one common ancestor) share about 25% of their DNA. An aunt and her nephew (3 generational steps with two common ancestors) also share approximately 25% of their DNA. A grandparent and a grandchild (2 generational steps with one common ancestor – the grandparent) also share approximately 25% of their DNA. A first cousin (four generational steps with two common ancestors) shares about the same amount of DNA as a half-uncle and his half-nephew (three generational steps with one common ancestor). A first cousin once removed (five generational steps with two common ancestors) shares about the same amount as a half first cousin (four generational steps with one common ancestor).

When evaluating the amount of DNA shared with an unknown genetic cousin, consider potential equivalent relationships. When evaluating the amount of DNA shared with known relatives, determine if their amount of shared DNA would be more typical of a half relationship.

Understanding how you relate to others in your family tree can be confusing at times. We've created an easy-to-read DNA & Relationship Quick Reference chart to help take the guesswork out of determining family relationships. Download the full-resolution version for free using the button below.

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If you need help determing your relationship to a genetic match, or would like help extending your family lines, let Legacy Tree Genealogists provide the research and the extensions to your family tree. Contact us today for a free consultation.

april 26, 2019 by Paul - Legacy Tree Genealogists Researcher 14 Comments

“Who Is This?” 6 Steps to Determine Genetic Relationships of Your DNA Matches

In this article we share the steps you need to take to help determine the genetic relationships of your DNA matches.

You’ve taken a DNA test. The day finally arrives when you get a notification in your email: your results are ready! You eagerly log into your account and begin navigating your genetic heritage. Eventually, perhaps after viewing your ethnicity admixture results, or looking at different genetic traits, you make your way over to your match list. There are hundreds of people who share DNA with you—your genetic cousins. Some of the close ones might be familiar. There is your cousin, and another match has a surname that sounds familiar from family conversations. And yet, most of the others are complete strangers. Who are these people? Why don’t they have surnames you recognize? How closely related are they? To find out, work through the following six steps to determine how you are related to a genetic cousin.

1. Build Your Family Tree

In order to determine how you might be related to a genetic cousin in your match list, it’s important to first build your own family tree. This tree provides a reference for comparison against your genetic cousin’s family tree. Start with yourself, your parents, your grandparents and other known relatives. Explore the research of others as a clue for your own research efforts. Finally, seek document evidence to identify likely ancestors, support proposed generational connections, and document important events in your family tree. Since autosomal DNA evidence is most effective for revealing relationships within the last six to eight generations of ancestry, we recommend building out your family tree at least five to six generations wherever possible. If this is not possible due to brick walls in your family tree, don’t worry. The DNA analysis tips we offer here can help you overcome those challenges.

After tracing your family back, consider also tracing the descendants of your ancestors for a few generations. Determining who the siblings, nieces, nephews and other collateral relatives of your ancestors married can help you recognize other surnames associated with your family. Maybe your genetic cousin will carry one of those surnames. Maybe they carry the surname of your great-grandfather’s brother-in-law or son-in-law. Descendancy research might help you tie into the published trees of other genetic cousins.

Once you have constructed a family tree based on document evidence and family information, attach it to your DNA test results. This can generate hints regarding your potential relationships to genetic cousins giving clues regarding your shared ancestors, locations and surnames.

2. Explore the Family Trees of Your Genetic Cousins

After familiarizing yourself with your own family tree, it’s time to compare against your genetic cousin’s family tree. Some genetic cousins attach family trees to their DNA test results. These trees can generate hints if you both report descent from the same ancestors. If you have taken the step to include some of your collateral relatives in your family tree, new technologies like ThruLines and The Theory of Family Relativity can help to identify likely common ancestors even if you do not both report your common ancestors in your respective family trees. Sometimes, trees attached to DNA test results are very small, including only a few generations. Other times, the attached family trees are private, or a genetic cousin may not have attached a family tree to their test results. Consider reaching out to your genetic cousin and requesting information on their family tree. If your genetic cousin does not respond, try to build a family tree for them using the clues they provide in their username or profile in conjunction with public record indexes or traditional genealogical research. By building out the family tree of your match, you can often find shared surnames, locations or even ancestors in your respective family trees. But don’t stop there! Right now, you only have a hypothesis. It’s important to confirm that your proposed genealogical relationship aligns with the genetic evidence! Even if you can’t identify proposed common ancestors, the next steps can help you interpret likely levels of relationship.

3. Determine How Many CentiMorgans You Share

The closeness of a genetic relationship is estimated based on the number of centiMorgans (cM) you share with a match. CentiMorgans are a measurement of the likelihood of recombination in autosomal DNA over the course of a generation.

Autosomal DNA is composed of 22 pairs of chromosomes that you inherit from your father and mother. You get one set from mom and one corresponding set from dad. Before DNA gets passed on to the next generation, your maternal chromosomes and paternal chromosomes line up and exchange genetic material in a process called recombination. This process results in chunks or segments of DNA getting passed on to you from your more distant ancestors. On any given chromosome, you might inherit chunks of DNA from one grandparent, the other grandparent, or a combination of segments from both grandparents. Copies of these segments of DNA get passed down from generation to generation resulting in the distribution and dispersion of your ancestor’s genetic legacy. When you share a segment of DNA with a genetic cousin, it means that a copy of the DNA from a common ancestor got passed down over multiple generations, through multiple recombination events. That segment survived the genetic lottery to get to you and your genetic cousin—a pretty amazing feat! As a general rule, closer genealogical relatives share more segments of DNA and share segments with larger centimorgan values because there have been fewer opportunities for the segments to get broken up through the process of recombination. Therefore, closer relatives typically share more centimorgans than more distant relatives.

In the following list, we describe how to find the number of centimorgans at each of the major DNA testing companies:

MyHeritage DNA reports the total number of shared centimorgans on their match cards in the match list.
23andMe reports the number of shared centimorgans in a match’s profile, but only for certain matches. Navigate to “DNA Relatives” section and click on a genetic match. If they are participating in open sharing or if they have shared genomes with you then their total cM shared will appear in a section entitled “Your genetic relationship.” If this section does not appear, then you may need to send a sharing invitation.
AncestryDNA reports the total number of shared centimorgans as part of their match list. Each match profile has a small section entitled “Shared DNA” with the number of cM and segments.
FamilyTreeDNA reports the total number of shared centiimorgans in a designated column in their match list. However, this total includes very small segments. To recalculate the total, download the segment data for that match or all matches from the chromosome browser view, remove all segments under a threshold and recalculate the total.
GEDmatch reports the total number of shared centimorgans with a match in the match list. One-to-one comparisons may result in slightly different totals based on the different thresholds for the one-to-many and one-to-one functions.

4. Explore Probable Relationship Levels Based on Total Shared Centimorgans

Some amounts of shared centimorgans are only observed at specific relationship levels. In other cases, an amount of shared centimorgans may be possible for several relationship levels but is still more likely for a certain relationship level than for others.

There are several resources to help you determine the most likely level of relationship based on the number of shared centimorgans between you and your genetic cousin. If you have tested at AncestryDNA, you can click on the small “i” circle right next to the report of your shared DNA with each genetic cousin in your match list. This will give you a table describing the likely probability levels for each level of relationship. These probabilities appear to come from Ancestry’s own database analysis. If you have tested elsewhere, or if you want a second reference point, visit DNA Painter’s “The Shared cM Project 3.0 tool v4,”. Here you type in the total number of shared centimorgans (to the nearest whole number), and it will generate a table of probabilities for different relationship levels. If you are working with 23andMe data and only have the percentage of shared DNA, DNA Painter will also accept a percentage input. These probabilities are from the AncestryDNA Matching Whitepaper based on simulated data. The DNA Painter Calculator also cross references the Shared cM Project—a project compiling real data from user-provided submissions of amounts of shared DNA for known levels of relationship. The Shared cM Project gives a good idea of the ranges of observed shared DNA for specific relationship levels.

determine genetic relationships — *Screenshot of DNA Painter tool.*

5. Consider Genetically Equivalent Relationships

The amount of DNA you share with a genetic cousin is dependent on the number of generations (or recombination opportunities) between you and your cousin. It is also dependent on the number of ancestors you share in common. Because of these variables, some relationships are genetically equivalent. For example, a second cousin is someone with whom you share common great-grandparents. A first cousin twice removed is the grandchild of your first cousin (or the cousin of your grandmother). Second cousins and first cousins twice removed are both expected to share similar amounts of DNA because both levels of relationship include six generational steps. In most cases, two genetic cousins will be related through two common ancestors: an ancestral couple. When two individuals only share one ancestor, the amount of DNA they are expected to share in common is cut in half. When they share more than two ancestors, the amount of DNA shared can increase. Either situation can lead to additional genetically equivalent relationships. Half siblings (two generational steps with one common ancestor) share about 25 percent of their DNA. An aunt and her nephew (three generational steps with two common ancestors) also share approximately 25 percent of their DNA. A grandparent and a grandchild (two generational steps with one common ancestor—the grandparent) also share approximately 25 percent of their DNA. If one of your parents has an identical twin, then your first cousin who is the child of your parent’s twin might also share about 25 percent of their DNA with you. Finally, double first cousins (four generational steps with two pairs of common ancestors) also share approximately 25 percent of their DNA.
When you are evaluating the DNA you share with a relative, don’t be alarmed when your great-aunt shows up as a proposed first cousin. Those relationships are genetically equivalent (four generational steps with two common ancestors). It is up to you to consider the additional information at your fingertips such as the ages and family trees of each individual to navigate equivalent relationship levels. A good guideline is to consider approximately 25 years of age difference as a generation.

6. Compare Your Hypothesis to the Genetic Evidence

Good job so far! You’ve navigated your family tree and your genetic cousin’s family tree and identified a relationship hypothesis. You’ve explored the shared DNA, identified likely relationship levels and navigated equivalent relationships. Now it’s time to pull it all together for your conclusion. Does the proposed genealogical relationship fit with the estimated genetic relationship? If you have identified your genetic cousin as a likely second cousin, is a second cousin level of relationship the most likely level of relationship given your amount of shared DNA? If not, is a second cousin level of relationship still reasonably likely (does it have a percent probability higher than 10-15%), is it possible at all? Even if your proposed relationship is the most likely, are there other relationship levels which are also reasonably likely? Be sure to avoid any confirmation bias. You might be tempted to see what you want to see and just ignore conflicting evidence. Just because a second cousin relationship is possible does not mean that it is proven, particularly if a second cousin once removed (genetically equivalent to a half second cousin relationship) is also possible or significantly more likely.

If your proposed genealogical relationship (as identified in the first two steps) is not the most likely level of relationship given the genetic evidence (as identified in steps three through five), put your investigation on hold and repeat this process for some of your more distant genetic cousins. Are there others who descend from the same ancestors and share more appropriate amounts of shared DNA given their proposed relationships? Do you have genetic connections to collateral relatives of each member of the proposed ancestral couple? Does your genetic cousin share matches who are collateral relatives to each member of the proposed ancestral couple? Exploring these questions can help you determine if you and your genetic cousin are in fact half-relatives, if there is a case of misattributed parentage along one of your ancestral lines, or it may help you confirm that you are actually related at the proposed relationship level, but just happen to share low amounts of shared DNA.

Build your family tree. Explore family trees for your matches and if possible, propose hypothesized relationships. Determine the amount of DNA you share with your cousin. Evaluate the probabilities of different relationship levels given your proposed DNA. Explore genetically equivalent relationships. Finally, correlate the traditional and genetic evidence and determine if they align. If necessary, repeat the process for other genetic cousins to ensure the accuracy of your research. By following these steps, you can identify relationships to unknown genetic cousins, confirm your relationships to known ones, and guard against the possibility of misattributed parentage in your family tree.

Are you struggling to make sense of an unexpected result in your DNA test? Legacy Tree Genealogists has experienced researchers who would love to help you consider both the genetic and documentary evidence to resolve your research questions. Contact us today for a free quote!

[1] Jonny Perl, “Shared cM tool v4,” DNA Painter, (https://dnapainter.com/tools/sharedcmv4, accessed April 2019).

[2] Catherine Ball, et al., AncestryDNA Matching White Paper Discovering genetic matches across a massive, expanding genetic database, published online 31 March 2016, (https://www.ancestry.com/dna/resource/whitePaper/AncestryDNA-Matching-White-Paper.pdf: accessed April 2019), figure 5.2, p. 32

[3] Blaine Bettinger, “August 2017 Update to the Shared cM Project,” The Genetic Genealogist, 26 August 2017, (https://thegeneticgenealogist.com/2017/08/26/august-2017-update-to-the-shared-cm-project//: accessed April 2019).

december 17, 2018 by Paul - Legacy Tree Genealogists Researcher 1 Comment

Legacy Tree Product Review: DNA Painter

DNA Painter, a DNA analysis tool created by Jonny Perl, was the well-deserved winner of the 2018 RootsTech DNA Innovation Contest. Jonny’s creation effectively meets key needs for genealogists as they engage in genetic analysis and interpretation.

Evaluating Amounts of Shared DNA

One of the first approaches employed by genealogists in genetic analysis is evaluation of shared DNA between known and unknown genetic cousins. Some amounts of shared DNA are more likely for certain levels of relationship than they are for others. Each of the DNA testing companies are necessarily conservative in the relationship estimates they publish, but analysis of shared centimorgans (cMs) can give better indications of likely levels of relationship, thus guiding interpretation and research prioritization. Before DNA Painter, many relied on the Shared cM Project and/or the probability chart published in the AncestryDNA Matching Whitepaper to better interpret amounts of shared DNA.[1] While the Shared cM Project reports real data and shows ranges of likely relationships, it does not include probabilities of relationship levels given an amount of shared DNA. Meanwhile, the AncestryDNA White Paper chart shows these probabilities, but is based on simulated data and is difficult to interpret because of its logarithmic scale.

DNA Painter’s “Shared cM Tool v4” combines the best of both resources. By entering a number of shared cMs, researchers can obtain detailed probabilities of various levels of relationship.

These probabilities are obtained from computational analysis of the published graph and are much more accurate than eyeball estimates. At the same time, all relationships in which a specific number of shared cMs have been observed are highlighted on the most recent version of the Shared cM Project chart. A related tool enables exploration of joint probabilities as researchers test multiple comparisons within the context of a set of hypotheses. When utilizing these resources, keep in mind the following cautions:

Genetically equivalent relationships (like first cousins, great aunts, half uncles and great grandmothers) are grouped in relationship categories based on the number of common ancestors and the number of generational steps.
Relationships more distant than the level of fourth cousins are grouped into a single distant cousin category.
Probability estimates for amounts of DNA lower than 40 cMs were extrapolated by extending the Ancestry Whitepaper graph’s curves and may not be as exact as those that were simulated.
There is a possibility of entering a percentage rather than a number of shared cMs, but centimorgan to percentage conversions are not exact given the logarithmic nature of centimorgan measurements and probabilities based on percentages may not be as accurate.
Joint probabilities assume independence and not all genetic relationships are independent. For the best results seek comparison against genetic cousins from unique descent lines of a common ancestor.

Overall, these resources provide invaluable insight for researchers and clients as we evaluate the likelihood of documented and proposed relationships for known relatives and estimate potential relationships for unknown relatives.

Chromosome Mapping Made Easy

DNA Painter also makes chromosome mapping readily accessible to most researchers. Previously, creating chromosome maps required extensive knowledge of spreadsheet software, exact headings and formats for inputs, time consuming uploads and/or cumbersome processes that made this approach inefficient for professionals, out of reach for others and cumbersome for all. DNA Painter overcomes many of these obstacles.

It permits creation of multiple profiles for different map subjects. Painting segments is as simple as copying and pasting segment data from GEDmatch, MyHeritage, 23andMe, or Family Tree DNA into the entry field and attaching any notes, comments, or considerations that the creator may wish to add. Segment data is easily assigned to existing or new relationship groups. If the origins of shared DNA with a genetic cousin are unknown, DNA Painter is designed to enable rapid hypothesis testing against other known and assigned segments. Assignment of segments, matches and relationships is easily editable and duplication options make it simple to create multiple backup maps at different stages of the mapping process. Alternatively, duplicated maps can act as a starting or comparison point for other map subjects. DNA Paintings are stored online, are easily accessible from anywhere and easily shareable with anyone. DNA Painter transforms chromosome mapping from the cumbersome, monotonous and sometimes discouraging task it was in the past to an addictive, fun and immensely informative pursuit.

DNA Painter offers wonderful additions to the genealogist’s arsenal of resources. The available tools for shared cM evaluation build upon the best elements of previously available resources and the painting platform launches chromosome mapping to a whole new level of ease and usefulness. Give it a try, we think you will be pleased.

The Legacy Tree Genealogists team is uniquely qualified to assist in the interpretation and exploration of DNA test results as part of larger family history stories. If you have questions about genetic genealogy research and using DNA to extend your family history, we can help! Contact us today to request a free quote.

*This article originally published in the September 2018 APGQ is reprinted with permission

[1] Blaine Bettinger, “August 2017 Update to the Shared cM Project,” The Genetic Genealogist, 26 August 2017 (https://thegeneticgenealogist.com/2017/08/26/august-2017-update-to-the-shared-cm-project/: accessed May 2018).

Catherine A. Ball, et al., “Figure 5.2,” AncestryDNA Matching White Paper: Discovering genetic matches across a massive, expanding genetic database, page 32, dna.ancestry.com, accessed May 2018.

november 26, 2018 by Paul - Legacy Tree Genealogists Researcher 5 Comments

Right Person, Right Place, Right Time: Documenting the Unknown in your DNA Test Results

Resources to help you in documenting the unknown in your DNA test results.

Each DNA testing company warns that DNA testing can reveal surprises and previously unknown information about your family. In fact, customers of these databases make unexpected discoveries every day. These discoveries can be distressing and traumatic but might also be exciting and compelling. As you navigate the emotions and reactions of this experience, we recommend reviewing this list of resources to help. In other situations, the unknown in a person’s family history could be the impetus for a DNA test. You might have tested because there was an unknown in your family history.

Some unknowns deal with immediate family circumstances. Maybe you find that you have a large ethnicity estimate from a region you weren’t expecting. Perhaps you find that you and a close family member only share half the DNA you were expecting to share—or don’t share any DNA at all. Alternatively, your DNA test might show you as a close relative to a complete stranger. Other discoveries might be in relation to more distant ancestors. A Y-DNA test might not include anyone carrying your own surname. A particular branch of your family tree may not be represented in your autosomal DNA test results, or a group of genetic cousins descended from the same family might appear as relatives to you with no immediately verifiable connection. If you tested in order to address an unknown, perhaps you were adopted and wish to learn more about your heritage. Maybe you never met your biological father, or perhaps a more distant ancestor was an orphan with unknown origins.

In all of these cases, in order to resolve unexpected findings and address unknown relationships in your family history, you must move beyond the initial DNA test results. Genetic genealogy requires consideration of all available evidence. Although your DNA test results may alert you to a potential family history mystery, to prove the exact nature of the situation you should consider at least some additional genealogical evidence and context. Additional investigation might also reveal that what initially appeared to be a surprise discovery was not altogether unexpected after all. Regardless, interpretation of your DNA test results in the context of your family history is only possible through consideration of both genetic and document evidence.

At Legacy Tree Genealogists, we assist clients with unexpected discoveries every day. Most often, the focus of our research centers around identifying the right people in the right place at the right time to explain a genetic relationship and the context of an individual’s conception. We rely on multiple forms of document evidence in order to interpret and discover the meaning of unexpected or unknown relationships. We review some of our favorite record types for exploring these relationships and how they can be used below.

Family Information

Often unexpected test results might spur a memory of a conversation, a family story or a filed away document which might cast light onto a genetic test result. Particularly for cases of recent misattributed parentage, family context may hold vital clues for future research. Close family members may have recollections from the time period of the conception. They might remember details of who a parent was dating, who the family’s neighbors, acquaintances and friends were or other important clues or anomalies. Conversations which previously seemed odd or mysterious might suddenly take on new meaning. Documents from the time period including letters, journals, and other papers might also give context to the activities and whereabouts of a parent at the time of conception. When exploring family information, genetic cousins should also be contacted and invited to collaborate with their family stories and information.

Bob’s cousin uncovered an early 1900s photograph owned by their grandfather which provided valuable clues for proving that man’s multiple identities.
After discovering that the man who raised him was not his biological father, Darien’s half-siblings confirmed that their parents had been separated at the time of his conception. Later analysis resulted in identification of candidates living hundreds of miles a way from the family’s residence, but in the same town as the Darien’s maternal grandmother where the family often visited.
Jillian was surprised to find several unknown half-sibling genetic cousins, but found bills from a fertility and donor conception clinic upon reviewing her mother’s files.
After Julia successfully identified her biological mother, she learned from new maternal family members that her mother had a relationship with a semi-professional athlete around the time of the conception. Though the athlete identified was not the biological father, another athlete from a competing team was.
Terry’s sister remembered seeing a man who regularly visited their home in Malaysia. She did not think anything of it until her sister’s test results revealed a half-sister relationship.
Jordan asked her mother regarding details of her biological father and contacted a likely paternal genetic cousin for more information. The match confirmed the identity of Jordan’s father and offered additional family stories.

Adoption Records

In adoption cases, adoptees or other close family members may be entitled to their original birth-certificate, the adoption file, non-identifying information, family health history, or other adoption records. These should be obtained whenever possible. Even when the information obtained is intended to be non-identifying, the ages, family structure, causes of death, family origins, and occupations of family members mentioned can frequently narrow the pool of candidates. Some states and jurisdictions hold mutual consent registries for adoptees and biological parents.

Lauren identified her biological father using information from her non-identifying information file. Her father was identified as a high school gym teacher and there was only one high school in the town where she was born.
William was searching for information on his grandfather’s adoption and found that the adoptive parents published a newspaper court notice to the biological mother around the time of the adoption.

Vital Records

Birth, marriage, death, and divorce records can provide important clues regarding unexpected family relationships. They might lend evidence to cases of misattributed parentage based on conception, marriage, and birth dates. They might provide context for cases of infidelity. They are also helpful for proving genealogical relationships between genetic cousins as they often provide some of the most direct evidence for family relationships.

James found that his grandfather was born nine months before the proposed parents’ marriage. Targeted testing of his grandfather’s presumed father’s family proved that he was not James’ grandfather’s father.
Gene’s father was unknown. He found that his mother divorced her husband very near Gene’s date of conception. The divorce proceedings named his biological father.
Maria found that the birth indexes for her state included two female children born on the same day in the same place. One entry was for her amended birth certificate and the other entry was for her original birth certificate which revealed the maiden surname of her biological mother.

Compiled Family Trees

When an autosomal DNA test subject matches a group of genetic cousins who, in turn, are documented relatives to each other, it is likely the test subject is descended or related to the common ancestors of those individuals as well. Family trees for genetic cousins can be analyzed for shared ancestors, surnames, and locations which act as clues to the source of shared DNA with a group of matches. When matches have small family trees, the information they do provide can sometimes be used to quickly extend match’s genealogies and search for connections between more distant generations. Once these connections and clues are identified, additional documents can be obtained to prove each generational linkage. Compiled family trees are also useful for identifying targeted testing candidates who might be interested in solving a family mystery.

Donald discovered unexpectedly that his mother was adopted. A large number of close genetic cousins had attached family trees and all of them descended from a common set of great-grandparents. Their trees helped quickly identify Donald’s maternal grandmother.
Katy found a compiled tree from another MyHeritage user which included her great-great-grandmother. She invited the owner of the tree to perform DNA testing and together they used their test results to solve the unknown parentage of their common ancestor.

Public Records

Sometimes genetic cousins provide little information in conjunction with their DNA test results. They may not have a family tree themselves. They may not respond to requests for collaboration. Despite these shortcomings, it may still be possible to determine how they are related to a test subject or a group of matches by building a tree for them. Public records indexes found on many genealogy websites as well as people finder databases may help in extending their ancestry. Use every piece of available information including shared matches, usernames, email addresses, or reported residences to help identify living individuals. Once you have performed research on your family, you may need to perform additional DNA testing in order to prove the identity of a particular ancestor. Public record databases can also help you locate contact information for living individuals who might be invited to test.

Even though Kelly had a close genetic cousin, that cousin had no family tree. By searching for that cousin’s username in public records databases, Kelly discovered that her match was a daughter of her first cousin.
Daniel wanted to know the identity of his unknown grandfather and through his research narrowed it down to three candidates. He contacted a living descendant of each candidate and invited them to test. All three accepted the invitation and helped him solve the case.

Social Media

Even if genetic cousins may not have attached family tree information, they may have a strong social media presence that provides clues regarding their extended family. You might find other genetic cousins among their social connections. Even if their friends may not be visible, look for relatives commenting on their public posts. Posts for birthdays, marriages, deaths, old photographs, and reminisces can provide important details regarding family history as well as family relationships.

Brian’s non-identifying information from his adoption file noted his maternal grandmother was a native of Greece. Brian’s closest genetic cousin posted a birthday wish on the Facebook profile of a relative: “To the Greek princess, a wonderful birthday.” His relative was the client’s mother.
Judy was frustrated trying to figure out how she was related to three non-responsive matches. A search in their respective Facebook profiles revealed that they were all first cousins to each other.

Newspapers

In addition to the enormous value that newspaper obituaries have for tracing descendants of an ancestor, finding living individuals, and proving relationships between collateral relatives, newspapers also can illuminate the context of the people, place, and time of a conception. Small towns often used social columns in newspapers as a chronicle of daily life and activities providing such important details as the attendees at a party, visits from out of town relatives, and local happenings.

Research on the family of Charles, an adoptee, resulted in identification of several candidates from two families. A newspaper article from around the date of his conception showed that his biological mother was visiting from out of town and that his biological father was present at a party held in her honor.
Growing up, Frederick’s father was very secretive about his origins and family. Genetic relationships to paternal relatives revealed that Fredrick’s father was related to a family in Illinois, but it was unclear how. A series of newspaper articles revealed that a member of that family disappeared without a trace in the 1930s and was never heard from again. Targeted testing confirmed that George’s father was the son who had disappeared.

Censuses

Census records provide snapshots of families and communities at regular intervals and help show who was in the same place at the same time. U.S. Censuses after 1880 also state family relationships and can provide easily accessible direct evidence for generational linkages between proposed relatives. More recent censuses in urban areas frequently provided street addresses for the residences of families giving geographic context to an investigation. Even in rural areas, households were often enumerated based on their proximity to one another. Boarders, neighbors, and nearby families can sometimes be identified as the DNA contributors in unexpected relationship scenarios.

Chad was surprised he did not share Y DNA with anyone with his same surname. Instead, he shared Y DNA with several individuals with the Bollinger surname. His great-great-grandfather was born in 1861 and an 1860 U.S. Census for his third great-grandparents showed that they were next door neighbors to Francis Bollinger.
Doris’s great-grandmother was a showgirl with a stage name who died when Doris’s grandmother was still a very young girl. Genetic connections to a family in South Carolina and a 1900 U.S. Census record resulted in identification of a candidate. It also led to identification of living testing candidates to confirm the research hypothesis.
Doug’s surname is Neal. His Y-DNA matches are all Prices. Doug’s fourth great-grandfather was from North Carolina and the state census for 1787 shows several Neal and Price households in the same community.

City Directories

If an ancestor with unexpected or unknown parentage was born between census dates, or if you discover recent unknown ancestry after the time when most censuses are available, city directories offer an excellent supplement and substitute for exploring the residences, occupations, and geographic contexts of a conception event.

Gina’s great-great-grandfather was born out of wedlock in Pittsburgh in the 1890s, but city directories show that his mother was residing within a quarter of a mile of a man who appeared in the family tree of several genetic cousins.
Clyde’s mother was born out of wedlock in Georgia in the 1940s. Genetic relationships reveal connections to a family of five brothers, any one of whom could have been her father. Clyde’s maternal great-grandmother was living within a mile of four of the brothers and across the street from one of them.
Frank was left in an abandoned Philadelphia apartment building at a few hours old. A member of a family who show strong genetic connections to Frank’s DNA was living in the apartment building next door.

Genetic genealogy is an immensely powerful tool which can help solve mysteries of unknown ancestors and unknown origins. On the other hand, DNA testing may result in the discovery of unanticipated, unexpected or unknown relationships. Regardless of whether genetic genealogy is used to address an unknown or is the means of uncovering one, DNA test results must be considered within the context of traditional document evidence in order to adequately identify the right people in the right place at the right time.

Are you struggling to make sense of an unexpected result in your DNA test? Do any of the scenarios above sound similar to your own situation? Are you seeking unknown ancestors in your family tree through genetic evidence? Legacy Tree Genealogists has experienced researchers who would love to help you consider both the genetic and documentary evidence for your case. Contact us today for a free quote!

april 13, 2018 by Paul - Legacy Tree Genealogists Researcher 7 Comments

Covering Your Bases: Introduction to Autosomal DNA Coverage

“Why does my sister have different ethnicity percentages than I do?” “Why does my brother have different genetic cousins than I do?” “If we have the same parents, then shouldn’t we have the same ethnicity or the same relatives?” If you have had these questions regarding your DNA test results, you are not alone! These are some of the most common questions about genetic genealogy tests that we receive from our clients and our readers. If you have these questions, it also indicates that you are ready to incorporate your DNA test results into your family history research and explore the concept of DNA coverage.

Your ethnicity estimates and genetic cousin match lists may differ from those of your close relatives because of the unique inheritance patterns of autosomal DNA – the type of DNA on which these ethnicity estimates and relative lists are based. Due to these inheritance patterns, different descendants of a common ancestor may share some DNA with each other, but will also inherit unique portions of that ancestor’s DNA which they do not share in common. This inheritance pattern not only explains why siblings have different test results; it also shows why collaboration, planning, and targeted testing are necessary components of achieving genealogical proof with DNA evidence.

In humans, autosomal DNA is composed of 22 pairs of chromosomes found in the nucleus of the cell. Each individual inherits one set of chromosomes from their mother and a corresponding set of chromosomes from their father. Therefore, each individual gets 50% of their autosomal DNA from each of their parents. The amount of DNA inherited from more distant ancestors is only approximate due to a random process called recombination which shuffles the DNA each generation. Each individual inherits about 25% from each grandparent, about 12.5% from each great-grandparent and approximately half again for each previous generation. Although you inherit 50% of your DNA from your mother and your sibling also inherits 50% of their DNA from your mother, the portions of DNA you inherit are not exactly the same unless you are identical twins. On average, two full siblings will share 25% of their maternal DNA and 25% of their paternal DNA with each other. By extension, each sibling will inherit 25% of their maternal DNA and 25% of their paternal DNA which is unique from another sibling.

Because of these inheritance patterns, one sibling might have inherited a larger portion of DNA from the mother’s African ancestors, while the other sibling might have inherited a slightly larger portion of DNA from the mother’s European ancestors. In the context of genetic match lists, one sibling might inherit more DNA from a particular branch of his mother’s family tree than another sibling. Because genetic cousins are identified based on shared DNA, one sibling might share more with a known relative than the other sibling. Ethnicity percentages and genetic relationships to other tested individuals are dependent on the DNA that an individual happened to inherit from their parents and more distant ancestors. While we have explored autosomal inheritance in the context of sibling relationships, the same principles apply to more distant levels of relationship. However, more distant relatives share even less DNA in common with each other. Not only do these inheritance patterns help explain the differences between the test results of close relatives, they also help explain why collaboration, planning, and targeted testing of multiple descendants are important for applying DNA test results to genealogical research.

At Legacy Tree, we frequently incorporate DNA evidence into our research as we seek to break through particularly challenging brick walls, such as in this recent client project. While cases of recent unknown or misattributed parentage can sometimes be solved with just a single DNA test, research goals from the 19th century and earlier are frequently more difficult to solve. Your DNA may not be the best resource for adequately addressing a research goal. If you the research subject is your great-grandfather, then your DNA results will only include about 12% of that ancestor’s DNA. At times, achieving genealogical proof to answer a research question requires targeted testing of additional descendants, relatives, and potential relatives of a research subject. The goal of these efforts is to maximize the coverage of a research subject’s DNA in any given DNA database.

Introduction to DNA Coverage

Coverage refers to the amount of a research subject’s DNA that is represented in a DNA database through their combined tested descendants. As mentioned previously, you inherit 50% of your DNA from each of your parents. Considered from another perspective, this means that by testing yourself, 50% of your mother’s DNA is represented or “covered” in a DNA database. If you are interested in learning more about your mother’s unknown ancestry, then your own DNA would “cover” 50% of her DNA which you could utilize in analysis of her relatives and relationships. As shown above, if you and a sibling performed DNA testing, you would each share 50% of your DNA with your mother, but overall you would achieve 75% coverage of her DNA. With increased coverage of your mother’s DNA, you would get a better picture of her ancestry, connect with more relatives, and have better chances of solving family mysteries.

An analogy might be the illumination of a portrait in a dark room. If the DNA of the research subject is the painting, then one descendant’s DNA test might be compared to a single flashlight pointed at the painting. While that single light illuminates part of the picture, it only provides a portion of the complete story. The portion of the painting illuminated by different descendants might be larger for some than for others based on their relationship to the research subject. Grandchildren will have larger illuminations than great grandchildren. By recruiting additional descendants to test, it is possible to illuminate more of the complete picture.

DNA coverage — Coverage for one tested descendant

While testing multiple descendants of a research subject is useful, not all descendants are equally important. Whenever possible testing candidates should be recruited from unique descent lines, because they inherit more unique DNA and therefore result in higher coverage. Consider, for example if your research subject is your great-grandmother. Your DNA test would result in about 12% coverage of her DNA. If you were to test your sibling, you would get 75% coverage of your father’s DNA, the test subject’s grandson, but you would only get about 19% coverage of your research subject’s DNA. Even if you were to test yourself and four of your siblings (scenario 1 below), the coverage you could expect to achieve of your great-grandmother’s DNA would be limited by the DNA that your father inherited from that same ancestor: about 25%. Meanwhile, if you were to test yourself and four first cousins through unique descent lines (scenario 2), you could achieve approximately 38% coverage of your great-grandmother’s DNA. Even better, if you tested yourself and four second cousins through unique descent lines (scenario 3), you could achieve approximately 49% coverage of your great-grandmother’s DNA.

Given these observations, when attempting to maximize the coverage of an ancestor’s DNA, you should consider testing descendants from unique descent lines.

DNA Coverage Calculations

If a test subject has a coverage of 100% (or 1), then their DNA will cover 50% (or.5) of the DNA of a parent. In the following equations, C = coverage of the research subject. To simplify the equations, we have chosen to account for the fact that a child will cover 50% of a single parent’s DNA. Therefore, a = ½ the coverage of child A, b = ½ the coverage of child B, c = ½ the coverage of child C, and d = ½ the coverage of child D. When calculating coverage of a research subject, we recommend calculating the coverage at each branch point in the individual’s tree. For example, if a research subject had three children who had descendants, the coverage of each child should be calculated before calculating the coverage of the research subject.

Coverage equation for a subject with one child: C = a

Coverage equation for a subject with two children: C = a + b – ab

Coverage equation for a subject with three children: C = a + b + c – ab – ac – bc + abc

Coverage equation for a subject with four children: C = a + b + c + d – ab – ac – ad – bc – bd – cd + abc + abd + acd + bcd – abcd

Coverage equation for a subject with five children: C = a + b + c + d + e – ab – ac – ad -ae – bc – bd – be – cd – ce – de + abc + abd +abe + acd +ace + ade + bcd + bce + bde + cde – abcd – abce – abde – acde – bcde + abcde

When estimating the coverage of a research subject, calculate the coverage for each intervening generation. This is straightforward if there is only one tested descendant along a particular line, but can be more complicated for multiple descendants. For example, in the following scenario, the coverage of the first child of the research subject is .25 (1 ÷ 2 ÷ 2). Coverage for the second child is .625 (.5 + .25 – (.5 x .25)). Coverage for the third child is .375 ((.5 +.5 – (.5 x.5)) ÷ 2). Once we have calculated the coverage for each child, we divide those values by 2 (.125, .3125, and .1875) and we calculate the overall coverage for the research subject. (.125 + .3125 + .1875 – (.125 x .3125) – (.125 x .1875) – (.3125 x .1875) + (.125 x .3125 x .1875). In this scenario, the overall coverage for the research subject is 51%.

Applications for DNA Coverage

Why spend time estimating the coverage of an ancestor? It will probably save you time and money in the long run. Coverage calculations are an important part of DNA testing plans because they help you evaluate whether testing additional relatives could significantly affect the overall coverage of your research subject. By first identifying all living descendants of a research subject and then calculating coverage for different testing scenarios, you can prioritize which relatives to test for a given research goal. Since testing multiple descendants results in a diminishing return on coverage, you can also use these calculations to determine when to stop testing additional relatives. A general guideline we recommend: if the expected increase of coverage from one additional test is greater than 5%, then that relative should be invited to test. If the expected increase of coverage from one additional test is less than 5%, then it may not be worth it to test that relative within the context of the research goal.

Another important application of coverage is the reconstruction of ancestral genomes and estimation of amounts of shared DNA. When multiple descendants of a target ancestor test and transfer their test results to Gedmatch, Family Tree DNA, or MyHeritage, it is possible to identify all unique segments shared between descendants of a research subject and key matches. Based on the coverage of a research subject’s DNA, we can estimate approximately how much DNA a research subject would have shared with a key match and can evaluate relationships without the ambiguity of additional generations of relationship. This approach, however, should be used cautiously as coverage calculations are simply estimates of the amount of a research subject’s DNA represented in a database. As more descendants of a research subject perform testing, these estimates more closely reflect reality.

If you’ve taken a DNA test and need help analyzing the results, or if you have a genealogy question you think DNA might be able to help answer, we would love to help! Contact us to discuss your questions and goals, and we’ll help you choose a project option and get started.

september 11, 2017 by Paul - Legacy Tree Genealogists Researcher 3 Comments

Developing a DNA Testing Plan

You have taken your DNA test, and you have your ethnicity estimate, but how does genetic genealogy testing actually help you with your genealogy? Where do you even begin? By developing a DNA testing plan you can ensure that you pursue your research with a focused goal in mind, which will help determine how best to proceed.

Even though ethnicity estimates get a great deal of attention, the most genealogically valuable element of your DNA test results is the match list which connects you to others based on your shared DNA inheritance. As you begin working with your DNA test results within the context of your genealogy, we recommend sharing and collaborating with your genetic cousins. The main goal of your correspondence with genetic cousins might be to determine the nature of your relationship, but could also include sharing information regarding your shared heritage and ancestors, or requesting their help in recruiting additional relatives to test.

However, your match list may sometimes present problems of its own. If it includes several thousand individuals it might seem overwhelming. If you only have a handful of matches, it might be discouraging. In either case, there is no need to worry. Genetic genealogy tests are constantly changing as more people test. If you have too many matches, just focus on the closest ones. If you don’t have enough, the genetic cousins you need to make genealogical breakthroughs may not have tested yet. Waiting for the right cousins to test need not be a passive pursuit. Consider target testing your known relatives (or the known relatives of your matches) to better achieve your research goals.

Creating a DNA testing plan

In order to create a robust testing plan, you first need to have a specific research subject and a clear objective. Focus on a single ancestor. Make a goal of what you hope to discover through DNA testing. DNA testing is ideal for addressing questions regarding kinship, but is not as good for exploring motivations, biographical detail or uncovering ancestral stories. Once you have a research subject and objective, then you can evaluate which relatives will be the best candidates to test to thoroughly address your research problem.

In this post we will create an example DNA testing plan for John Martin who was adopted by a shopkeeper and his wife in the mid-1800s. We have few clues as to who his biological parents may have been. Our research subject is John Martin, and our stated objective is to determine the identities of his biological parents.

Understanding shared DNA

Because of the unique inheritance pattern of autosomal DNA, testing multiple relatives of a specific research subject can be extremely beneficial. Each individual inherits half of their autosomal DNA from each of their parents. Beyond that, the amount of DNA shared in common is only approximate due to a random process – called recombination – which shuffles the DNA each generation. Each individual will inherit about 25% from each grandparent, 12.5% from each great-grandparent and approximately half the previous amount for each subsequent generation. Although two first cousins will have both inherited 25% of their DNA from each of their common grandparents (50% in total) they will have inherited a different 25%. Therefore, first cousins will typically only share about 12.5% of their DNA in common. Because descendants along distinct lines inherit different portions of their common ancestors’ DNA, it is important to test as many people from distinct family lines as possible.

Don’t overlook the importance of traditional genealogy research!

Since it can be extremely beneficial to test multiple descendants of a research subject, before pursuing a detailed testing plan we recommend documenting as many descendants of an ancestor of interest as possible through traditional research. Though this process can be time consuming, it is often worth the effort. By tracing all descendants, you can accurately evaluate which genetic cousins will be best to invite to perform DNA testing. Additionally, tracing the descendants of ancestors can frequently lead to additional clues for extending ancestry. Just as different descendants inherit different DNA, they also inherit different information and historical documents regarding their ancestors. Some of that information could include clues regarding the very relationships you are trying to clarify. While searching for descendants of your ancestor of interest, consider utilizing compiled family histories, obituaries, city directories, family organizations and public records to identify living descendants.

In tracing the descendants of John Martin, we found that he had three children who lived to adulthood. We traced each of their descendants through traditional research and identified 10 living relatives. Now that we know the identities of all his living descendants we can prioritize which relatives to test.

Who you decide to test as part of your research problem can be considered within the context of coverage. Coverage is the amount of an ancestor’s DNA that is represented in a DNA among all of their tested descendants. Coverage can be estimated by determining the amount of DNA that one descendant shares with a common ancestor, plus the DNA that another descendant shares with that same ancestor, minus the DNA that both descendants share in common with that ancestor. When two full siblings perform DNA testing, they obtain a coverage of about 75% of their parents’ DNA. Testing three full siblings results in about 87.5% coverage of their parents’ DNA.

Prioritize testing to achieve the highest level of coverage

To achieve the highest coverage of a research subject’s DNA, prioritize testing the closest generational descendants. A living granddaughter of a research subject will have inherited much more DNA from the ancestor of interest than a second great grandson. You can often find the closest generational descendants of a research subject by searching for the youngest child of the youngest child of each generation of their descendants. These individuals will typically have the longest generation times, and therefore have a greater likelihood of having close living descendants. Keep in mind that any DNA inherited from a common ancestor has to come through an individual’s immediate ancestors. If a granddaughter of a research subject is still living, and she in turn has descendants, any of the DNA that her children or grandchildren inherited from the research subject had to have come through her, and will be a subset of her own DNA. Therefore, if the granddaughter is tested, there is no need to test her descendants as well within the context of the research objective.

For example, in the case of John Martin, his granddaughter Maria is the closest living generational descendant. She will share much more DNA with John Martin than any of his other descendants. Also, any DNA that Maria’s descendants (Jennifer Jones or Matthew Williams) inherited from John Martin would be a subset of the DNA that Maria inherited from John. Therefore, if we were able to test Maria, we would not need to test Jennifer or Matthew.

Also, to achieve the highest coverage of DNA, we recommend testing descendants from unique lines. If a research subject had three children who lived to adulthood, rather than testing descendants of a single child consider testing descendants from each of the children. Testing only descendants of a single child limits the maximum coverage we can achieve, while testing descendants from each line enables maximum coverage. In this case, testing Maria, George, and Isaac or Julia would result in slightly higher coverage than testing Maria, Isaac, and Julia.

Other benefits of creating a DNA testing plan

So far, our discussion on testing plans has focused on the descendants of a research subject. However, it can also be beneficial to test other individuals as part of a research plan. Testing known relatives from other family lines can help to filter DNA test results. Any matches shared between a test subject and a known relative can be assigned to that side of the family. If there are proposed candidates who might be among the ancestors of the research subject, their descendants might be tested to prove or disprove hypotheses regarding their relationship. If, after testing, there are still very few genetic cousins, consider collaborating with those cousins to test their older relatives or representative family members from their various ancestral lines.

In this case, it has been proposed that John Martin was the son of a woman named Jessie Brown. Traditional research revealed that Jessie Brown had other living descendants who might be tested. Their test results could be used to confirm or refute the hypothesis of John’s relationship to Jessie. If their results confirm John and Jessie’s relationship, they could also be used to isolate which genetic cousins of the descendants of John Martin are likely related through the ancestry of John’s father. Finally, testing close known relatives from the other ancestral lines of each testing candidate could help to filter which genetic cousins are related through the ancestry of John Martin.

Since most researchers work within a limited research budget, developing a DNA testing plan can help prioritize which DNA test(s) should be performed first, and can help maximize the chances of successful resolution of research problems. Choose a research subject, define a clear objective, research their living descendants, prioritize DNA testing, and maximize your chances for genealogical discovery.

Do you have DNA test results and you’re not sure what to do or how to use them? Our genetic specialists can help you every step of the way–from developing a DNA testing plan, interpreting your DNA test results, organizing your genetic network and everything in between! Whatever your research question is, we would love to help you use your DNA results to find the answer. Contact us to discuss the options!

juli 24, 2017 by Paul - Legacy Tree Genealogists Researcher 5 Comments

Beginner’s Guide to Swedish Genealogy Research

Don't be intimidated by patronymic naming patterns! We'll walk explain the basics of Swedish genealogy, and where to find the records you need to extend your Swedish ancestry.

Swedish genealogy research

Foreign language obstacles and patronymic naming patterns are commonly cited reasons for avoiding Swedish genealogy research. But with an understanding of a few basic concepts, Swedish genealogy research can be simple, fun, and successful!

What is a patronymic name?

A patronymic name is one that is created when a prefix or suffix is attached to the father’s name. For example, the patronymic surname Johansson can be broken into two parts: Johans’ son. This means that someone with the surname Johansson was the son of Johan. Likewise, a surname of Johansdotter is the patronymic version used for the daughter of someone named Johan. Because of this patronymic naming pattern, a brother and sister may have had similar, but different, surnames from one another.

While it is common in many English-speaking countries to adopt a surname and pass it down for many generations, this was not the case in Nordic countries! It was common for the patronymic surname to change with every generation. Another interesting note that pertains to Swedish surnames is that women did not take their husband’s surname, but rather, maintained their maiden patronymic surname.

Non-patronymic surnames

While patronymic surnames were common, some surnames were established based on other identifying characteristics, such as a physical attributes, occupation, or location where the individual lived or worked. This practice was commonly used by soldiers as a means of differentiating between other soldiers with the same patronymic surname. After their military service ended, many soldiers opted to drop these assigned surnames, but some opted to use the surname throughout their life.

Modern Swedish surnames

In the mid to late nineteenth century, the patronymic naming system began to fade. The -dotter suffix was replaced with women adapting the -son suffix. It became more common for a surname to be passed on over multiple generations; and women more frequently adopted their husband’s surname. Oftentimes as Swedes migrated to other countries, they would modify their surname to more closely resemble the language of the new country. Understanding how Swedish surnames have evolved over the years will help as you dive into Swedish records.

“But I don't speak Swedish!”

Particularly in late 18^th and 19^th century records, record formats are tabular and an in-depth knowledge of the language is not required to make exciting discoveries. Additionally, different types of church records regularly reference one another, enabling researchers to trace their Swedish ancestors for every year of their life from birth to death. Even when an ancestor’s record trail turns cold, recent publications and indexes created by active Swedish genealogical societies make it possible to pick up the trails of elusive ancestors in earlier and later records. Not only do common Swedish records provide material for drawing genealogical connections, but the level of detail in these records also provides ample material for construction of biographical narratives–even if you don't speak Swedish.

Swedish Church Records

Swedish church records are one of the most utilized sources for Swedish genealogy. In addition to birth and christening (födelse och döpte), marriage and engagement (lysning och vigsel) and death and burial (död och begravning) records, Swedish church records also include moving-in lists (inflyttade), moving-out lists (utflyttade) and a unique record known as the “husförhörslängd” – or the clerical examination. Swedish church records in the 18^th and 19^th centuries were often maintained in tables and were largely composed of names, dates and residences. Dates were frequently recorded in number formats according to the European system (dd-mm-yyyy). As a result, genealogy researchers can learn a great deal from Swedish documents with little knowledge of the Swedish language. For the few words you may need to learn, consider reviewing this list of words commonly found in Swedish documents available through FamilySearch.org. Longer annotations can be deciphered and interpreted through free tools such as GoogleTranslate.

As mentioned before, Swedish church records frequently reference one another. In particular, the clerical examination or “husförhörslängd” can act as an index to important family events. Beginning in 1686, each parish was required to keep a household examination for each household. Early records may have been discarded, but eventually statistical tabulations and tax rolls required the preservation of these documents. Copies of these records exist for many parishes in Sweden after about 1780. As part of the household examination, parish priests of the Swedish Lutheran church were required to visit with the members of their parish at least once yearly and test them on their knowledge of the catechism. The ledgers they utilized were reused over the course of several years and not only include information about the family’s religious duties, but also include additional information regarding migration, family structure, residence, and important family events.

Discovering Details About Swedish Ancestors

Typically, these registers will include information for a family over the course of 5-10 years. If a child was born, they were added to the clerical examination and their birth date and christening date was noted. If an individual or a family moved within the parish, a note was made in the clerical examination and a reference to the page number of the family’s new residence was also made. If they moved outside of the parish, the date they left was often recorded, along with the number of their entry in the moving-out books. The dates of deaths, confirmations, marriages, vaccinations and communions were also recorded. If you are lucky, additional notes might comment on crimes, physical characteristics, occupations, punishments, social standing, economic status or other life events with references to pertinent records.

A genealogist's guide to swedish genealogy research

The above Household Clerical Examination in Dals-Ed Parish in Älvsborg covers the years from 1866-1875 and shows the household of Per Johansson on the farm of Lilla Wahlberg in Bälnäs. The document provides birthdates and birth places for each household member. It shows that Per’s son, Andreas, moved to Norway in 1872. Another son, Emanuel, moved within the parish but returned after just a month. Among other notes on the document we learn that Emanuel only had one eye and that he was a dwarf.

Not only do clerical examinations reference other church records, but birth, marriage, death, and migration records frequently reference household examinations. Birth records might list the page number of the child’s family in the household examination. Marriage records will indicate the corresponding pages of the residences of the bride and the groom. Death records identify the residence of the deceased. Moving-in and moving-out records will frequently report the corresponding page numbers of the farm where a migrant eventually settled or the parish from whence he came. Even if these records do not list the specific pages of interest, they may still provide the reported residences which can then be located in the clerical examination records.

Most clerical examination volumes include an index of farms and residences within the parish. In the case of some larger parishes and cities, local genealogical societies have sometimes indexed all individuals in the volume by name. When researching in multiple volumes, note the farm or residence of your ancestor in the previous record and then search the index of residences near the front or end of the next clerical examination volume. Usually this will narrow your search to just a few pages out of the book rather than the entire volume.

Strategies for Overcoming Brick Walls in Swedish Genealogy Research

Occasionally an ancestor might have moved in a year for which migration records are not currently available, or they might have moved to a larger city with many parishes. Other times their migration may not have been noted, or jurisdiction lines may have been redrawn, resulting in the formation of a new farm and residence. In these cases it may be difficult to continue tracing an ancestor’s record trail. One strategy to overcome these situations is to search the clerical examinations by reported birthdate. The birthdates or ages of Swedish ancestors are recorded in many of their records. If you are browsing through large collections, consider searching by birthdate rather than by name. Since birth dates were often recorded in their own unique column and are more immediately recognizable than names, this may expedite your search. If these strategies still yield no results, searches in indexes may help to uncover an elusive ancestor’s record trail.

Online Resources for Swedish Genealogy Research

In recent years, online indexes and databases have made Swedish genealogy research simpler than ever. MyHeritage.com, FamilySearch.org, and Ancestry.com all have large collections of indexed birth, marriage and death records from Sweden. Additionally, MyHeritage has partnered with ArkivDigital to index Swedish clerical examinations between 1880 and 1920. A current indexing project is attempting to do the same for the household examinations from 1850 to 1880. Other indexed collections at ArkivDigital include the 1950 and 1960 Swedish censuses. Ancestry.com has indexes of the Gotenburg passenger list records which can help identify relatives who emigrated from Sweden to others parts of the world. Finally, Sveriges Släktforskarföbund has compiled an index of Swedish death records from 1900 to 2013 which can be purchased on CD. If the record trail of your ancestor or another relative runs cold, you might pick it up again by searching some of these indexes for records before their earliest known record, or after their last known record. Often by consulting the corresponding church records mentioned in the indexes it is possible to close the gap in their record trail.

Given the resources available for Swedish genealogy research, success is imminent. Don’t let language or patronymics frighten you away from the amazing genealogical discoveries waiting to be uncovered.

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