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Searching, Sorting, and Filtering DNA Match Lists

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This article was written by Paul Woodbury, a member of our Legacy Tree Genealogist Research staff. It was originally published in NGS Magazine, a National Genealogical Society publication.
Source: NGS MAGAZINE ∙ APRIL – JUNE 2024 ∙ VOLUME 50, NUMBER 2

Lists of DNA matches and genetic cousins can be overwhelming. How can genealogists begin to make sense of hundreds, thousands, or even hundreds of thousands of DNA matches and how they might be related? How can they hope to narrow their focus in such a massive data set to the genetic cousins that are most pertinent and pressing for their genetic genealogy research questions?

Earlier editions of this column have explored means for organizing, sorting, and labeling DNA matches based on their relationships to each other and to a tester’s known ancestors as well as some of the strategies for analyzing DNA matches and determining their significance. In addition to these techniques, researchers should make use of the tools provided by DNA testing companies for searching, sorting, and filtering DNA match lists to make them more navigable and useful. This article discusses some of these features.

Searching DNA Match Lists

Each testing company offers search capabilities in match lists, though the information searched through these tools varies from database to database.

  • Results for queries in the MyHeritage search bar include DNA matches with similar usernames or with the same names and/or surnames in associated family trees.
  • 23andMe’s search bar returns keyword matches for the names of DNA matches, names reported in match profiles, or keywords included in the text of previously recorded notes.
  • AncestryDNA provides three separate search bars: one for match names, one for surnames in a match’s trees (along with an option for surname variants and similar surnames), and one for place names in a match’s trees.
  • FamilyTreeDNA’s search bar returns results for match names, surnames, and Y-DNA and mtDNA haplogroups. It is also possible to narrow the search bar to one of these categories.

Ancestry search bar image

AncestryDNA’s search bar enables searches for a match name, a surname in matches’ trees, or a birth location in matches’ trees. Other filters can isolate unviewed matches, matches with common ancestors, matches with previously recorded notes, matches with trees (private, public or unlinked), and shared DNA ranges.

When searching match lists for ancestral surnames and locations, exercise caution to avoid confirmation bias. The fact that a genetic cousin has the Johnson surname in their family tree does not necessarily mean that he or she is related through a tester’s own Johnson ancestry. Even with less common shared surnames, it is still possible that the closest relationship between a tester and a genetic cousin and/or the source of their shared DNA is through a different set of common ancestors.

On the other hand, the fact that none of a tester’s genetic cousins have reported descent from a particular ancestral family is not necessarily evidence that there is a case of misattributed parentage.

Cousins from that family may not have tested yet, may not have attached family trees to their test results, or may not exist due to several generations of small families in a particular ancestral line. In drawing conclusions based on the results of searches for an ancestral surname or location, researchers should pair analysis of corresponding DNA matches with clustering and organization efforts of shared matches to ensure that proposed shared ancestors, surnames, or ancestral locations are indeed supported by a strong foundation of genetic evidence.

Sorting DNA Match Lists

Each testing company offers sorting features so users can view DNA match lists in different ways. Some common sorting categories include options to sort for the newest matches in a list and various measures of relationship or shared DNA. Sorting for the newest matches in a list can be particularly helpful when checking to see if any new matches have appeared in a match list since a previous review of available matches.

23andMe permits sorting by strength of relationship (as estimated by its algorithm), percent related (or percentage of shared DNA), number of segments shared, and order of newest relatives. The order of matches does not always align when filtered by relationship and percent related, since estimated relationships at 23andMe take into account size and number of segments and not just the total shared DNA.

AncestryDNA has just two sorting options: by relationship, close to distant (and within broader categories by total weighted amount of shared DNA), and by date, from newest to oldest.

MyHeritage offers sorting by shared DNA, shared segments, size of the largest segment, full name (alphabetically), and most recent matches. Sorting by size of the largest segment can be particularly helpful when researching endogamous populations.

FamilyTreeDNA permits different sorting options for its various DNA test results. Family Finder autosomal DNA tests can be sorted by estimated relationship range, total shared DNA (which may not always correspond to the same order as estimated relationships), longest blocks of DNA (which can be helpful for research in endogamous populations), whether or not a person is an X-DNA match, and even by Y-DNA and mtDNA haplogroups. FamilyTreeDNA also offers the ability to sort by most recent matches, matches linked to family trees, and by ancestral surnames.

FamilyTreeDNA’s Y-DNA STR test results (37 or 111 marker tests) can be sorted by genetic distance (the number of stepwise mutations distinguishing the Y-DNA signatures of a tester and a match), the number of markers tested, the number of Big Y STR differences, Y-DNA haplogroups, paternal countries of origin, paternal earliest known ancestors, and most recent matches.

While mtDNA match lists at FamilyTreeDNA do not have a dedicated sorting tool, users can sort from largest to smallest or vice versa by clicking on column headers for the match list (genetic distance, name, earliest known ancestor, haplogroup, and match date).

FamilyTreeDNA enables sorting DNA matches based on relationship range and shared DNA, but unlike some of the other companies it also enables sorting based on size of longest segments, whether matches are X-DNA matches, and Y-DNA and mtDNA haplogroups.

Filtering DNA Match Lists

Finally, each testing company provides several options for filtering DNA match lists. As described in the previous issue, the companies that permit starring or favoriting matches (MyHeritage, 23andMe, and Ancestry) have corresponding filters to isolate just those matches. AncestryDNA and MyHeritage also enable filtering to view only the matches assigned to particular groups or dot labels. 

23andMe filterAt 23andMe, match lists can be sorted to show new relatives, individuals who have submitted new sharing requests, individuals who are showing their ancestry results, or individuals with whom a user has exchanged messages. Connection and sharing status is also a filter option with connected, not connected and pending requests as categories. If one or both of a tester’s parents also perform testing at 23andMe and subsequently identify their father or mother in the test results, 23andMe applies maternal and paternal filters. Reported ancestor birthplaces and reported family surnames are also filters. The 23andMe+ Premium subscription enables users to filter based on ethnicity, genetic populations, and haplogroups.

At AncestryDNA, researchers can filter their match lists to generate lists of unviewed matches, matches with common ancestors, matches with notes, matches with private, public, or unlinked family trees, or matches in particular relationship or shared DNA ranges. Ancestry Plus tools enable filtering by Parent 1 and Parent 2 categories (associated with Ancestry’s SideView technology).

23andMe’s filters enable researchers to isolate matches based on their age in the database, profile details, connections, ancestral birthplaces, and family names.

FamilyTreeDNA Family Finder autosomal DNA test results have filters for tree statuses (public, private, or empty), match dates, and tests that genetic cousins have taken (including the various Y-DNA and mtDNA tests currently or historically offered). Y-DNA test results have similar filters, with additional filters for genetic distance and genetic cousins who are members of specific group projects. Though in a slightly different format, mtDNA test results also have filters for group projects, tested mtDNA regions, last names, and matching dates.

MyHeritage permits filtering by tree details including matches who have Theories of Family Relativity, genetic cousins with SmartMatches, individuals with attached family trees, and individuals with shared surnames and shared ancestral places. Other filters are dedicated to relationships (close, extended, and distant relatives) and locations of residence.

MyHeritage filter

MyHeritage provides extensive searching, sorting, and filtering options. Its filter categories include tree details, pictured here, and locations of residence for DNA matches.

Conclusion

Using the searching, sorting, and filtering features available through DNA testing companies, it is possible for researchers to more quickly find and isolate the genetic cousins who are most pertinent to their research questions. Searches for surnames and places can uncover relatives related through specific ancestral lines (though caution should be exercised and additional research should be performed to ensure that genetic relationships are supported through other evidence).

Sorting match lists by age can aid in finding pertinent genetic cousins who may have appeared in a match list recently. Filters can help in isolating genetic cousins who have attached family trees, shared ancestor hints, or other characteristics of interest. Together these tools make DNA match lists more navigable and useful for researchers.

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How To Use Catholic Christening and Baptism Records Around the World

Catholic christening and baptism records are an important resource for genealogical research in timeframes before the advent of government-sponsored civil registration. However, practices surrounding baptism, christening, and the creation of records documenting those events vary between religious traditions. In this blog series, we explore some of the varied practices and content of christening and baptism records in different Christian traditions. This article explores baptism and christening records in the Catholic church.

Baptism and Christening in the Catholic Church 

Baptism is one of the seven sacraments of the Catholic church and represents an individual’s initiation into the faith and cleansing from sin, among other aspects of spiritual life. While the terms christening and baptism are often used interchangeably because they were frequently performed simultaneously, baptism refers to the sacrament. In contrast, christening refers to the naming of a child or the adoption of a Christian name. Historical traditions surrounding a child’s baptism varied depending on the time, place, and culture, but some essential elements of baptism and christening in the Catholic church have remained relatively consistent. Since baptism is seen as necessary for salvation, and given high rates of historical infant mortality throughout the world, historically children were often baptized within a few days or even on the same day they were born. In instances where children were “in danger of death,” anyone (frequently midwives) could perform an emergency baptism, which might later be recognized in parish records. The baptismal ceremony itself often includes the following elements: reception of a child into the church by sponsors or godparents and the priest, liturgical readings and prayers, anointing with oil, blessing of the baptismal water, pouring of the water over the child or immersion of the child in the water, anointing of the child with holy chrism oil, dressing of the child in a christening garment, lighting of a candle, and concluding blessings or prayers.  

As part of Catholic baptism, the parents and godparents of a child are entrusted with the spiritual upbringing of the child in the faith, and historically, these individuals were also entrusted with the upbringing of a child in the event of the parents’ decease. Godparents were often selected from among the family members and close associates of the child's parents, and a child was frequently given the same name as the godparent of the same sex. A child's name was usually selected from the names of saints, including patron saints of a parish or the saint for the day of baptism or birth of a child.  

Early Catholic Christening Records 

The Catholic church instituted record keeping of baptisms (as well as marriages) on a church-wide basis in 1563 as part of the twenty-fourth session of the Council of Trent. The justification for keeping these records was to prevent forbidden marriages between individuals for whom an impediment of spiritual relationship existed (between a child and their sponsor, a child and the individual who baptized them, or between a child’s parents and the sponsors of that child). Specifically, parish priests were instructed to register the names of children baptized and godparents or sponsors of the baptism in a parish register. These records often also included information on the parents of the baptized child.  

Before the Council of Trent, some dioceses and even governments had issued their own regulations regarding the recording of baptismal records in parish registers. In other instances, parish priests may have taken it upon themselves to keep a record of baptisms and other rites for the members of their parish. As such, some Catholic parish registers date back to the 1400s or even 1300s. Even so, christening records dating to this timeframe are rare, and more commonly, baptismal records for a parish (where they still survive) typically date back to the late 1500s or early 1600s or to the date of the parish's founding.  

In 1614, the Rituale Romanum, established by Pope Paul V, included forms and templates that parish priests were instructed to use to record baptisms in their own dedicated books. This form included the following elements:  

  • The date of the baptism 
  • The name of the priest 
  • The name of the parish church and the town 
  • The sex of the child 
  • The names of the parents of the child 
  • The given name of the child 
  • The name, residence, and parentage of godparents.  

After this timeframe, baptismal records typically included at least these elements and sometimes additional details such as the child's date of birth or age, the names of grandparents, whether the child’s parents were married, or the relationship between the child and the godparents.  

Early baptismal records were often recorded in Latin, the language of the church, but gradually, baptismal records began to be recorded in the native languages of the countries where the church was established.  

Catholic Record-Keeping Practices and Access 

Parish priests were tasked with recording and maintaining parish registers, and over time, additional instructions were given in various dioceses as well as at the church-wide level regarding the content, form, and preservation of records. Most often, original parish records are kept in the parish where they were created. When and if a parish closed, the diocese usually archived the records of that parish. Bishops often inspected and examined the parish registers during their official visits. In some dioceses, duplicate records of parish registers were required to be created and regularly submitted to the diocese. Alternatively, original historical registers of a parish might be sent to a diocesan archive after a specific timeframe. Yet, in other instances, civil authorities for local governments might have required regular submission of duplicate registers of parish registers for civil registration, and those records might be located in government archives.  

Some online collections of Catholic baptismal records are available through popular genealogical websites, including FamilySearch, MyHeritage, Ancestry.com, FindMyPast, and other websites with narrower regional focuses. Digitization of these records depends on contracts and agreements with local dioceses, parishes, and, in some cases, government organizations and is, therefore, by no means universal. If the records of a parish where your ancestor lived are not yet digitized or available online, accessing original records may require an onsite visit or correspondence with the local priest or diocesan archive.  

A World Tour of Catholic Christening and Baptism Records 

The record-keeping practices for baptisms in the Catholic church are evident in the records of many countries in Western Europe. These same record-keeping practices spread and evolved with the expansion of the empires of France, Spain, Portugal, and other European powers. As a result, Catholic baptismal records can be found worldwide. Here, we review some examples and their associated historical context.  

Catholic Records in Spain for Genealogy Research 

In the following baptismal register from Cartagena, Spain, in 1884, we observe several features typical of records in Spain. Baptismal records were recorded in chronological entries in paragraph format. The first baptismal record for Diego, son of Cristobal Lopez and Maria Montes, includes a marginal note reporting his later marriage to Isabel Lapata Alcala in 1917. Marginal notes by parish priests also sometimes reported the legitimization of illegitimate children or might include minor notations indicating that a child died in infancy. In Cartagena, a major urban center by this time frame with residents from all over the world, these baptismal records also report the nativity and origin of the parents and even the grandparents of the child being baptized. Including a child’s grandparents was a feature common throughout Spain and in many areas Spain colonized throughout the world. Meanwhile, the third entry for Luis Mariano indicates that he was born to unknown parents and only identifies his godparents.  These records also reported the exact date of birth of the child. 

These records are accessible through FamilySearch from digitized images of microfilm copies of various parish registers filmed in 1987 at the Diocesan Archive of Cartagena-Murcia. Given the consistency of the handwriting across this record set, it is likely that the parish priest submitted a duplicate copy to the diocese.  

 Baptisms from the Santa María de Gracia parish in Cartagena, Murcia, Spain, in 1884. Image courtesy of FamilySearch.  

 

Catholic Records in the Philippines 

As an example of the similarities between baptismal records in Spain and other areas of Spain’s colonial (or former colonial) empire, we share a 1912 baptismal register from the parish of San Vicente de Paul in Manila, Philippines. Though the Philippines were under American jurisdiction by this time, the baptismal record is written in Spanish and follows many of the same features as the previously discussed baptismal record. It likewise presents baptismal records in a chronological paragraph format and reports information on the grandparents of a child. In this record, Angelita Arrieta West was identified as the daughter of Charles West (a native of Minnesota, son of Jonhn [sic] and Anise West ) and Rosario Arrieta (a native of Manila, daughter of Vicente Arrieta and Rafaela Peña). 

While this record is likewise available online through FamilySearch as a digitized copy of microfilms filmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah, the original records are housed at Adamson University in Manila.    

  Baptisms from the parish of San Vicente de Paul, Manila, Philippines, in 1912. Image courtesy of FamilySearch.  

Catholic Records Research in France 

In this 1767 parish register from Marest-Dampcourt, France, we observe that baptismal and marriage records were recorded in the same volume in chronological order. The baptismal records in this image include descriptions of the occupations of the child's parents, the exact date of birth, and the relationships between the child and the godparents. These records also indicate whether the parents or godparents were able to sign the baptismal record.  

These records are available online (as with many pre-1793 French Catholic church records) through the Department Archives of the website of Aisne. However, the images come from microfilms of Department Archives documents filmed in 1993 by the Utah Genealogical Society. Why are these Catholic parish registers housed in government archives? Part of the answer comes from the history of church record-keeping practices in the Kingdom of France. In 1539, the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts was passed by King François I, which required parish priests to keep baptismal registers and submit those registers every year to a local court registry office. Initially, compliance with this requirement was infrequent (as evidenced by the reiteration of the requirement in several additional royal edicts over the 17th and 18th centuries). Still, with each successive edict, compliance gradually improved.

In the aftermath of the French Revolution, the state assumed control of the property of the Catholic Church, including its archives. Local parish registers became the property of commune offices, duplicate registers in court registry offices eventually came to be housed in department archives, and some copies of parish registers held by diocesan archives were likewise seized and incorporated into department archives. As a result, many Catholic church records from before 1793 (the advent of government-sponsored civil registration) are available online through Department Archives. Images from these archives are also sometimes available through commercial websites like Geneanet, Filae, Ancestry.com, MyHeritage, and FamilySearch.   

 Parish register of Marest-Dampcourt, Aisne, France in 1767. Image courtesy of the Archives Departementales de l’Aisne.  

Catholic Christening and Baptism Records in French Canada 

France likewise exported its record-keeping practices to its colonies. This 1689 baptismal register from Cap-Santé, Quebec is mixed in with marriage records. In format and content, it is similar to the French record described above, naming the parents, their residences, the birthdate, the godparents, and relationships (if any) with the child or other individuals. In some of these baptismal records, the husbands of godmothers are identified. As with the French record above, this record is a duplicate copy of the parish register sent to the government for civil registration purposes.  

These records, available through Ancestry.com, are reproductions of microfilms created in the 1940s by the Institut Généalogique Drouin at courthouses throughout Quebec, Ontario Acadia, and even the U.S. These and additional images can also be accessed through the Drouin Institute's online resources.  

 1689 Parish Register from Cap-Santé, Quebec. Image courtesy of Ancestry.com 

Catholic Records in Germany 

Not all Catholic baptismal records were recorded in paragraph form. For example, this 1855 Catholic baptismal register from Bochingen in Württemberg (modern-day Germany) records many baptisms in a tabular format showing the number of the entry, the name of the child, the names of the child’s parents, the place of birth, date of birth, date, and place of baptism, the name of the priest who performed the baptism, and the names of the sponsors. 

This baptismal register comes from digitized microfilms at FamilySearch.org, initially filmed in the Diocesan archive. Other German records are sometimes found on Ancestry.com or Archion, among other websites.  

 Baptism book of Bochingen (Oberdorf), Württemberg. Image courtesy of FamilySearch 

Catholic Record-Keeping in the United States 

After migrating to the United States, many Catholics joined parishes associated with other immigrants from the same country. In one such parish, Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary parish in Philadelphia, we observe many baptisms for children of immigrant Irish families in the 1890s and some German surnames. The baptisms, recorded in a tabular format, are organized under Latin headers for the entry number, name of the child, date of birth, date of baptism, residence (left blank for all entries in this case), names of fathers and mothers, names of sponsors, name of the priest performing the baptism and annotations. We note that for baptisms performed by Joan J Hickey, names of children, parents, and godparents were recorded under Latin equivalents, while baptisms performed by other priests were recorded under English names.  

This record is available online through FindMyPast, which has extensive collections of Catholic church records from New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, and other dioceses in the United States.   

 1891-1892 baptisms of Assumption of Blessed Virgin Mary parish in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Image courtesy of FindMyPast.com  

Catholic Records in Cape Verde 

These 1858 baptismal records from São Salvador do Mundo parish, Santiago, Cape Verde, off the coast of Africa, are written in Portuguese (Portuguese explorers colonized the islands in the 15th century). Though similar in format to some of the French and Spanish records discussed previously, they offer fewer details, reporting only the date of baptism, name, parentage, residents of parents, and godparents of the children baptized. Of note in this record is the mixture of legitimate and illegitimate (or natural) births. In other areas of the world, baptisms of legitimate children and baptisms of illegitimate children were recorded separately. Also, in some regions, baptismal records might have been divided by race or might have been separated for enslaved people and free individuals.   

These records are held at the Arquivo Historico Nacional of Cape Verde and were microfilmed by the Genealogical Society of Utah in 2004. They are available online through FamilySearch.  

 1858 Baptisms from São Salvador do Mundo parish, Santiago, Cape Verde. Image courtesy of FamilySearch.  

Catholic Record-Keeping in Brazil 

Similar to the record from Cape Verde above, these 1898 baptismal records from Mariana, Minas Gerais, Brazil, provide minimal details regarding the subjects. However, among these records, we observe some interesting details. The third entry for José reported that he was the natural (illegitimate) son of Luis and Anna Fravezi, Italian nationals. In the fifth entry, Josepha was baptized on 9 October 1898 by José Defrancheschi, a congregant of the parish, because she was in danger of death.  

These records are digitized from a microfilm taken by the Genealogical Society of Utah in 1980 at the Curía Metropolitana of Mariana.  

 1898 Baptisms from Nossa Senhora da Assunção Parish, Mariana, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Image courtesy of FamilySearch 

Conclusion 

While Catholic baptismal records vary in content, form, and detail depending on time period and locality, they are an excellent resource for establishing the exact or approximate birthdate and birthplace of an ancestor as well as that individual's parentage. Because godparents were often family members of the parents of a child, their identities can also aid in extending an individual’s ancestry through indirect evidence and in understanding a family’s network of social relationships.  

Read More About Christian Christening Records

How To Use Orthodox Baptismal Records for Genealogy Research

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How To Achieve Genealogical Proof: DNA Analysis, Annotations, and Citations

The Genealogical Proof Standard outlines five components necessary for achieving genealogical proof:

  •  Reasonably exhaustive research
  •  Complete and accurate source citations
  •  Critical tests of relevant evidence through processes of analysis and correlation
  •  Resolution of conflicting evidence
  •  Soundly reasoned, coherently written conclusions

At 23andMe notes can be added by scrolling to the bottom of a match’s profile. Citation: 23andMe, “Notes,” https://you.23andme.com/, accessed August 2023.

In all forms of genealogical investigation, researchers must balance in-depth analysis of individual documents with broader correlation, analysis, and resolution of conflicts between evidence items. In the context of genetic genealogy, researchers frequently must balance in- depth analysis of individual DNA matches of a test subject with broader evaluation of patterns that emerge through consideration of larger pools and groups of DNA matches.

Annotation tools provided by DNA testing companies can support broader analysis efforts, but more advanced analysis and correlation benefits from citations of DNA matches and discussion of DNA evidence in research logs and written reports. Here we explore both approaches.

What to annotate and record for genealogical proof

When analyzing a DNA match, what elements are important to note or remember? What details might link with information from other matches to underpin the formation of a proof argument? DNA match analysis might include some of the following elements, which have been discussed in previous issues of this column:

• recognition of shared ancestral surnames, ancestral localities, or common ancestors in match profiles and attached family trees2

• exploration of ethnicity admixture summaries for a DNA match and how that correlates with their family tree or the potential source of shared DNA with a tester

• categorization of relationships based on the presence or lack of shared match relationships with close genetic cousins

• discussion of any hypothesized cases of misattributed parentage for a tester or their matches

• description of an exact genealogical relationship, and clarification of the generational linkages between a match and their common ancestors with a test subject, perhaps through links to a chart

• evaluation of amounts of total shared DNA and likely relationship levels based on genealogical context

• consideration of clusters of shared matches

• documentation of correspondence and collaboration efforts

• explanation of research efforts to identify a match, extend their family tree, and determine the nature of their relationship

• correlation of segment data, Y-DNA, mtDNA, and X-DNA evidence

• identification of pertinent document evidence that clarifies genetic relationship

These and other details are important elements to consider when annotating DNA matches and when correlating that information and evidence with other DNA matches, in order to build a proof argument dealing with genetic relationships.

Company annotation tools

Each company provides built-in note taking features for DNA matches that can associate analysis of a DNA match directly with their profile in the matching database. These notes are viewable only by the tester or administrator of the test and not by the match. 23andMe has a dedicated notes section at the very bottom of each match profile. At AncestryDNA, researchers can add notes to their matches using a corresponding Add Note link in the header of a match’s profile (underneath the buttons to connect to tree, message, or edit relationship, and beside the Add to Group link).

 

At AncestryDNA, notes can be added by clicking on the “Add Note” link in the header of the match profile (outlined in red in the accompanying image). Citation: “[Private]’s DNA Matches,” estimated parent/child with Paul Woodbury, sharing 3453 cM across 30 segments, https://ancestry.com, private database, accessed August 2023.

At Family Tree DNA, notes can be added by clicking on the test box icon in the far right top corner of each match’s card in the match list (outlined in red in the accompanying image). Notes are then recorded in a corresponding popup window. Citation: “Family Finder – Matches,” kit [PRIVATE}, estimated half-sibling, uncle/aunt/niece/nephew, grandparent/grandchild with Paul Alan Woodbury, sharing 1750 cM, https://familytreedna.com, private database, accessed August 2023.

 

Notes at Family Tree DNA are added by clicking on a text box icon on the far right of each match card in the main match list.

At MyHeritage, notes can be added by clicking on the text box icon on the far left of each match’s card in the match list (outlined in red in the accompanying image). “DNA results,” [PRIVATE], estimated grandson, nephew with Paul Alan Woodbury, sharing 2045.7 cM across 23 segments, https://myheritage.com, private database, accessed August 2023.

MyHeritage’s note field is accessed through a text box icon on the far left of each match card in the match list. This same icon can be accessed on the far right of the Review DNA Match page.

Annotating matches in the company interfaces can link a match with a corresponding analysis and research history, but these notes can be difficult to navigate since they are generally not searchable (with the exception of 23andMe). Further, if a match decides to opt out of DNA matching, or delete their kit, their record and any associated notes and analysis will be removed from the company system.

While annotating in a company system may work for some straightforward analyses and correlations, it can be cumbersome for more challenging and complex cases. Analyzing DNA matches in a separate stand-alone document is often more effective for advanced research. However, in those cases, it is important to also properly cite and document DNA matches.

DNA citations for genealogical proof

Citations for DNA matches include the same elements as citations for other forms of documentary evidence: who, what, when, where, and wherein.

Who created the record? In the case of DNA matches, the creators of the record are the companies that perform DNA analysis (23andMe, AncestryDNA, Family Tree DNA, MyHeritage, and others).

What is the record? Most often, information about DNA matches is obtained from reports or databases within the larger company dataset. For example, at 23andMe, DNA matches are presented as part of the DNA Relatives section of the website. This citation element also includes the name of the DNA tester.

When was the source created, published, last modified, or accessed? When citing DNA matches, researchers most often cite the date that the match profile and its contents was accessed.

Where is the source? The location of a DNA match profile is described by the URL of the DNA testing company.

Wherein? Specific information cited about a DNA match should aid in finding that match again but should also include information that supports the evidentiary analysis of that source. Details would most likely include the name and kit manager of the genetic cousin, the amount of shared DNA and estimated relationship (for autosomal DNA), or the genetic distance or haplogroup (for Y-DNA and mtDNA). Other information that might be incorporated into a citation include profile details, ethnicity admixture comparisons, attached family tree information, or chromosome segment data.

Examples of autosomal DNA match citations from several companies follow:

“DNA Relatives,” Paul Woodbury, match with George Woodbury, sharing 13 percent DNA (967 cM); 23andMe (https://you.23andme.com : accessed 23 August 2023).

“Paul Woodbury’s DNA Matches,” match with J. J. managed by Rulon Higgenbotham, sharing 200 cM; AncestryDNA (https://ancestry.com : accessed 23 August 2023).

“Family Finder – Matches,” Paul Woodbury (kit 282828), match with Jemima Kelly, sharing 320 cM; FamilyTreeDNA (https://familytreedna.com : accessed 23 August 2023).

“Paul Woodbury’s DNA Matches,” match with Harry Harris, sharing 60 cM; MyHeritage DNA (https://myheritage.com : accessed 23 August 2023).

Given the formulaic elements of DNA match citations, and given that many of the elements of these citations are available by download from the DNA testing companies, some researchers find it helpful to create automated citation templates. Spreadsheet software (like Excel or Google Sheets) can accept the input of a company download of match information and automatically construct citations for all of a tester’s DNA matches, using formulas to combine the elements of the citation.

Research logs and reports

Once cited, information regarding key DNA matches in the form of written analysis, downloaded information, or even screenshots might be recorded in research logs, reports, and document files. Thus, DNA match information and associated evidence can be preserved regardless of the later choices of DNA matches in adjusting their matching preferences or deleting a kit altogether.

Research logs are typically formatted as tables with columns for citations, descriptions of items being searched, analysis of evidence items (or lack thereof), mention of dates when a search was performed, and numbering of associated documents.

Document files for genetic genealogy often include documentary evidence supporting generational linkages between a tester and key matches, but also might include screenshots of important genetic reports.

Genetic genealogy reports often incorporate citations, charts, and correlation of evidence items for the construction of a proof argument regarding biological relationships.

As researchers write in research logs or research reports and incorporate DNA evidence, they often discover that the very act of writing about DNA matches clarifies the strength or weakness of the evidence, gaps in information, and possibilities for research avenues to pursue. It is often in the act of writing about DNA evidence that the complete picture of a genetic scenario becomes apparent.

At the same time, by documenting genetic genealogy research efforts, citing DNA evidence, analyzing, correlating, resolving conflicts, and writing conclusions based on the underlying evidence, it is possible to incorporate DNA evidence as part of genealogical proof.

Research logs often include the date of a search, a citation, commentary on the search, and document numbers. Citation: DiltsGD, “Log15,” https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/File:Log15.png, accessed August 2023. Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike license. 

 

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Genetic Genealogy Mysteries: How to proceed if a DNA match never responds

This article written by Paul Woodbury about finding a DNA match even if they don't respond first appeared in an issue of DNA Discovery. It is republished here with permission from the author and the publication. Enjoy learning about how to verify genetic matches under challenging circumstances!

In a previous article, I discussed tips for effective communication and collaboration with DNA matches. Collaboration is often the most efficient means of learning the nature of a genealogical relationship to a mystery genetic cousin. However, even if researchers craft perfect communications for their collaboration with DNA matches, there will still be some genetic matches who never respond to requests for cooperation.

If initial attempts to contact a genetic cousin are unfruitful, it may be necessary to independently identify the match and then determine the nature of the relationship. In these efforts, researchers should use every clue and piece of evidence at their disposal. This article reviews some of the important elements of a match’s profile that could be leveraged to discover their identity and ultimately how they are related to a test taker or to other DNA matches.

Genetic Match Name

If the name of a match is unique, it may be possible to identify the person through genealogical research at major websites. Ancestry, FamilySearch, MyHeritage, and other databases include indexes of public records. Their indexes (or original images) of vital records, funeral home records, obituaries, marriage announcements, census records, and other sources can help clarify a mystery match’s family relationships. Aggregator websites like BeenVerified, FamilyTreeNow, Intelius, Spokeo, and WhitePages often list likely relatives, associates, and neighbors whose identities may help in extending the match’s family tree.

Perform general search engine queries for a name or username along with “genealogy” or “family history” to see if the match has published family trees, blogs, forum queries, or other details regarding their family tree elsewhere.

If a match’s name is common and there are several (or even several hundred) candidates, considering other elements of the profile may help in zeroing in on the correct person.

Username Clues

A username often includes elements of a genetic cousin’s name. Some people use the same usernames in multiple contexts including social media websites and email, so conduct general search engine queries for a username or utilize public record aggregator sites for reverse username searches. Numbers in
a username might refer to important events like birthdates, anniversaries, or graduation dates; the age of the person at the time they set up a corresponding account; or the year they created an account.

Investigate Initials of  a Potential DNA Match

Some genetic cousins have published only initials associated with their test results, which may be administered by someone else. In these cases, build out the tree of the manager for the kit to see who in that tree has the correct initials to be the same individual as the test taker. Consider the possibility that a test manager may be a child, spouse, parent, sibling, niece, nephew, aunt, uncle, or other close relative of the test taker.

What About User Emails?

FamilyTreeDNA and GEDmatch test results include emails for users, which could be utilized in reverse email lookups through public record aggregator websites. Search for a username with “@ gmail,” “@yahoo,” “@comcast,” and other common email extensions to see if a username might form part of a tester’s email address, and whether that email address is mentioned elsewhere online.

Profile Image

Profile images can help researchers identify social media accounts, newspaper articles, yearbook photos, or other records that might refer to the same individual. They can also be used to perform reverse image searches (such as the services offered by Google Images or TinEye) along with a username, name, or other pertinent details, to determine if the same profile image has been utilized elsewhere online.

Shared DNA

The amount of DNA shared with a genetic cousin can offer clues regarding potential relationship levels. This, in conjunction with other profile details like age, birth year, or family tree information, can help narrow the potential nature of a genetic relationship. Evaluate shared Y-DNA, mtDNA, and X-DNA (or
the lack of shared DNA of these types) to explore the potential source of the genetic connection and how closely related the genetic cousin might be.

Ethnicity Regions of DNA Match

Some genetic cousins opt into sharing ethnicity admixture information with matches. Reviewing these details for clues regarding their recent heritage can help clarify which of the test taker’s (or the match’s) ancestral lines may be the source of their shared DNA. Ethnicity regions can also be helpful for identifying which of several same-named candidates is the most likely to be a genetic cousin, or comparing with a proposed family tree for a genetic cousin.

Shared Matches

Examination of shared matches can help reveal through which cluster or branch of a family a DNA match may be related. If there are other matches
with the same surname or with the surname in their family trees, this pattern can provide clues regarding a mystery match’s family tree. Further, while a mystery match may not have attached information to their profile, details regarding how much DNA the person shares with other shared matches at 23andMe, MyHeritage, and GEDmatch can help in their identification if one of their close shared matches is more readily identifiable.

Unshared Matches

If a test taker has close matches from known lines that are not shared with a mystery match, the mystery match may be related through another ancestral line.

Public Family Trees

If a genetic cousin has a family tree attached to their test results, utilize every piece of information
in the tree. At some company site, the view of a tree from a match profile may be incomplete. It might only show direct ancestors of a test taker and exclude other collateral family members who are also present in the tree. Open the tree and search the index of all people in the tree to see if there are any deceased or non-private individuals (even if those individuals are collateral relatives of the tree subject) whose identities might help clarify the identity and ancestors of the test taker.

Check the profile of the user or manager to see if they have created other family trees that might include more information. The name of the tree sometimes reveals the user’s surname.

Even if the tree is small, use what has been published to extend the tree until potential connections are found. Open the tree even if it is very small (perhaps including just one person), rather than relying on the linked preview from the match profile. A small tree can sometimes reveal additional details like the name of a deceased relative, or the birthdate, birth year, or birthplace of the test taker.

Private Family Trees

Study the name of a private tree for clues. When a private Ancestry tree is attached to DNA test results, researchers should search for likely or potential surnames they would expect to find in the tree based on shared matches and hypothesized relationships. The presence or absence of particular surnames in the tree can help in reconstruction of the match’s likely genealogy.

Surnames

Some DNA testing companies like 23andMe and FamilyTreeDNA allow users to publish lists of surnames associated with their family trees. Sometimes these surnames are entered in order at a specific generational level, from top to bottom. Other times they are listed in alphabetical order or in order of appearance in an individual’s ancestry, going back in time. Search for compiled family trees that incorporate combinations of these surnames. If a likely ancestral couple is identified, seek to account for the reporting of additional surnames through descendancy research.

Ancestral Localities

Some profiles at DNA testing companies report information on the places of birth of an individual’s recent ancestors or other ancestral localities of interest. Use these places in conjunction with other clues to reconstruct their family tree.

Specific Ancestors' Names

FamilyTreeDNA profiles often include the names of the most distant paternal and most distant maternal ancestors. These names, in conjunction with surname lists, can also be used to reconstruct an individual’s family tree through descendancy research.

Age or Birthdate

Some companies report the birth year or age of a tester (perhaps in a decade). Ancestry member profiles sometimes report the decade of a person’s age, but this information is self-reported at the time of the creation of the account and must be updated manually. An age or birthdate can help to narrow down a list of potential candidates of the same name.

Residence of a Potential DNA Match

23andMe often reports the residence of a test taker, and Ancestry member profiles sometimes provide this information. MyHeritage reports the country of residence for test takers or managers of kits. Even if the information is outdated, these residences can be used in public aggregator searches which often include past addresses. Residence may also offer insight for the potential ancestral line on which a genetic cousin is related if the person happens to reside in the same place or geographic area where their ancestors (and perhaps the common ancestors with the test taker) also lived.

Research Interests

Ancestry allows members to publish information about their research interests. Several companies permit members to publish a short description or bio which can provide additional details to help uniquely identify a match and extend their family tree.

Conclusion

By leveraging the details presented in the profile of a mystery match, and correlating them with other genealogical records, genetic evidence, and public records, it is often possible to identify a match, build their family tree, and determine the source of their shared DNA and the nature of their genetic and genealogical relationship with a test taker. To successfully accomplish this task, researchers often need to consider all potentially relevant clues from a match’s profile.

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Using DNA For Genealogy Research: tools for evaluating total shared centimorgans

chart Shared cM Project

This chart from the Shared cM Project shows ranges of total shared cMs observed for known relationship levels at each of the major DNA testing companies. An interactive version is available through DNA Painter’s Shared cM Project Tool. Courtesy of Blaine T. Bettinger, thegeneticgenealogist.com, CC 4.0 Attribution License.

In previous articles, I have introduced the Shared cM Project and tools for evaluating shared DNA at DNA Painter. This column explores the resources in more detail and describes how to navigate genetically equivalent genealogical relationships. I recommend use of these tools to evaluate “known” relationships for potential half relationships and possible relationship levels with unknown genetic cousins.

Centimorgans: how to use DNA for genealogy using shared cMs

Centimorgans (cM) are units of measurement used in genetics to represent the probability that two locations on a chromosome are inherited together over the course of a single generation. A 100 cM segment indicates that, on average, there is one crossover event between the start and stop locations of the segment. Because some portions of the human genome are more likely to recombine than other portions, there is no direct conversion between the length of a segment in base pairs and the centimorgan value of the same segment.

Genealogists frequently use the total number of centimorgans that a test taker and a genetic cousin share with each other, to estimate and evaluate the generational distance between them. Closer genetic relatives share higher total centimorgan amounts in more clearly defined and unique ranges than more distant genetic cousins, where there is more ambiguity and overlap in amounts of shared DNA.

While each DNA testing company offer broad estimates on relationship levels, development of additional tools and resources has enabled more refined estimates based on total amounts of shared centimorgans.

The Shared cM Project

In early 2015, Blaine Bettinger sent out a call for submissions of known genealogical relationships and associated centimorgan values. Derived from more than six thousand relationship and centimorgan submissions, the first version of the Shared cM project was released in May 2015.1 Since the initial version, the Shared cM Project has continued to grow. The most current update to the project, released in March 2020, includes more than sixty thousand submissions from members of the genetic genealogy community.2 This version of the project also includes charts showing the distribution, range, and average of amounts of shared DNA for specific relationships. The shared cM project continues to accept submissions of known relationships and associated amounts of shared DNA, which may be incorporated in future updates of the project.

The Shared cM Project enables evaluation of amounts of shared DNA within the context of real, observed data. However, this data has some shortcomings. It is self-reported (introducing possibilities of misidentification of relationships, user error in data entry, and submission of the same relationships multiple times). Also, the dataset includes data from each of the major DNA testing companies, which may affect the analysis given these factors:

▪ AncestryDNA down weights cM totals lower than 80 cM with its Timber algorithm.

▪ 23andMe includes X-DNA in the calculations of its totals (which no other company does).

▪ FamilyTreeDNA, until recently, included very small segments (from 1 to 5 cM) in the calculations of its totals.

▪ Each company applies different algorithms for calculating centimorgan values as well as different thresholds for which segments to include in the calculations of totals.

This figure from the AncestryDNA Whitepaper reports the probability of particular relationship levels (in meioses or generational steps) based on total shared cM. The chart forms the basis for the underlying probabilities reported by DNA Painter’s Shared cM Project Tool. Courtesy of AncestryDNA.

The AncestryDNA Whitepaper

In March 2016, AncestryDNA published a whitepaper detailing its autosomal DNA matching algorithms and process.3 As part of this paper, a graph shows the probabilities of different relationship levels based on the total shared centimorgans between two individuals. Using this information, it is possible to estimate the probabilities of a relationship level, given an amount of total shared DNA.

In 2019, AncestryDNA began reporting probabilities of different relationship categories based on amounts of shared DNA with genetic cousins. This table is visible by clicking on the reported total centimorgans and percentage of shared DNA in the main match list or on individual genetic cousin profiles. “Possible DNA relationships,” sharing 201 cM, https://ancestry.com, private database.

The AncestryDNA whitepaper created a large and consistent dataset based on simulations, but it too has shortcomings. Simulations are only as good as the underlying assumptions guiding them. These simulations are most immediately applicable to AncestryDNA data (which includes the effects of the Timber algorithm) and may not be as widely applicable to calculated totals from other companies. Further, the chart on its own is difficult to interpret and determine exact probabilities of relationship based on amounts of shared DNA.

The Shared cM Project Tool at DNA Painter

In December 2016, Leak Larkin published a detailed analysis of the AncestryDNA whitepaper figure, using a plot digitizer to determine the probabilities associated with different amounts of shared DNA.4 This data formed the basis for probabilities of relationship reported at Jonny Perl’s Shared cM Project Tool at DNA Painter.5 This tool not only reports probabilities based on the AncestryDNA whitepaper, but also interfaces with data from the Shared cM Project to highlight relationships where an amount of shared DNA has actually been observed.

Conflicts existing between the two datasets are annotated and identified in the probability table. Clicking on a relationship level shows the associated chart of observed amounts of shared DNA for that relationship. Recent updates also show where a total centimorgan value falls in the chart and the percentage of observed cases below and above that value.

The DNAPainter Shared cM Project Tool reports probabilities of different genetically equivalent relationships. Probabilities in the original tool (shown here) are based on AncestryDNA’s whitepaper, figure 5.2. Probabilities in the beta tool are based on AncestryDNA’s updated 2019 relationship probabilities associated with different amounts of total shared centimorgans. Courtesy of Jonny Perl, “The Shared cM Project 4.0 tool v4,” 201 cM, https:// dnapainter.com.

DNAPainter’s Shared cM Project Tool highlights possible relationships in the Shared cM Project chart. This example shows highlighted relationships for an individual sharing 201 cM. Courtesy of Jonny Perl, “The Shared cM Project 4.0 tool v4,” https://dnapainter.com, CC 4.0 Attribution License.

In 2019, AncestryDNA began reporting probabilities of relationship for genetic cousins of test takers based on total amounts of shared DNA (weighted amounts after application of the Timber algorithm) in a pop-up information window. These probabilities presented a different distribution than the probabilities originally presented in the 2016 whitepaper. They form the basis for probabilities reported in an updated beta version of the Shared cM Project tool at DNA Painter.

DNA for Genealogy: Genetic equivalence

While the Shared cM Project treats each relationship level separately, AncestryDNA’s Whitepaper data and its updated probabilities (and by extension the probability estimates provided by DNA Painter’s original and beta tools) combine multiple relationship levels into groups of genetically equivalent relationships.

The amount of DNA that two individuals are expected to share with each other is partially dependent on the number of generational steps between them (each generation from the test taker back to the common ancestors plus each generation down to the test taker’s genetic cousin). Some relationships are genetically equivalent because they have the same number of generational steps. Thus, second cousins and first cousins twice removed are expected to share similar amounts of DNA since both levels of relationship include six generational steps.

Clicking on any box in the interactive Shared cM Project chart shows the associated chart of observed values along with indications of where the value of interest falls in the observed range, with percentage of cases above and below that observed value. This same popup also reports the standard deviation of each chart. Courtesy of Jonny Perl, “The Shared cM Project 4.0 tool v4,” https://dnapainter.com, CC 4.0 Attribution License.

Second cousins (left) share two common ancestors and are separated by six generational steps. First cousins twice removed (right) also share two common ancestors and are separated by six generational steps (two steps for one individual and four steps for the other). Despite having different generational levels, these relationships are genetically equivalent due to the fact that the total number of common ancestors and the total number of generational steps is the same. Diagram by author.

In many cases, genetic cousins are related through two common ancestors: an ancestral couple. When two individuals share only one ancestor, the amount of DNA they are expected to share in common is cut in half, which is equivalent to adding another generational step. As a result, some full relationships are genetically equivalent to half relationships with one less generational step.

Half siblings (two generational steps with one common ancestor) share about 25 percent of their DNA. An aunt and her nephew (three generational steps with two common ancestors) also share approximately 25 percent of their DNA. A grandparent and a grandchild (two generational steps with one common ancestor – the grandparent) also share approximately 25 percent of their DNA.

A first cousin (four generational steps with two common ancestors) shares about the same amount of DNA as a half-uncle and his half-nephew (three generational steps with one common ancestor). A first cousin once removed (five generational steps with two common ancestors) shares about the same amount as a half first cousin (four generational steps with one common ancestor).

Second cousins (left) share two common ancestors and are separated by six generational steps. Half first cousins once removed (right) share one common ancestor and are separated by five generational steps. Despite having different generational steps, these relationships are genetically equivalent due to the half-relationship. Diagram by author.

Consideration of shared DNA in genealogical context

When evaluating the amount of DNA shared with an unknown genetic cousin, leverage additional

information regarding the DNA match including family trees attached to the results, age, and shared genetic cousins, to determine which of several possible genetically equivalent relationships is the most likely. When evaluating the amount of DNA shared with known relatives, determine if their amount of shared DNA would be more typical of a half relationship.

Conclusion

By using observed data from the Shared cM project and simulated data from AncestryDNA’s whitepaper and later updated probabilities (available through DNA Painter’s Shared cM Project Tool), it is possible to estimate the probability of different relationship levels based on amounts of shared DNA. From there, researchers should consider additional genealogical information such as ages of a test taker in comparison to genetic cousins and family trees attached to genetic cousins’ profiles, to distinguish which of several genetically equivalent relationships is the most likely.

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How To Create Diagrams and Charts for Genetic Genealogy Research

This article is based on a similar article in the July – September 2022 issue of NGS Magazine and is republished here with permission.

The Leeds Method, developed by Dana Leeds, enables genetic genealogy researchers to identify clusters of genetic cousins, based on color-code assignment of close matches and their shared genetic cousins. Chart created by author.

Genealogists reporting on research should consider the use of charts, diagrams, tables, maps, and other figures to clearly communicate findings. Sometimes a chart is worth a thousand words, and in the case of genetic genealogy, a simple diagram can present information much more effectively than an extensive (and oft-times repetitive and dry) discussion in paragraph form.

Charts and diagrams can also help in the process of discovery, analysis, and interpretation of genetic genealogy data. This article describes practical, accessible types of charts, diagrams, and tools for making sense of DNA evidence.

How To Use The Leeds Method for Genetic Genealogy

Simple spreadsheet software can be helpful for prioritizing, organizing, understanding, and analyzing autosomal DNA matches. One popular approach for organizing DNA matches, the Leeds Method, employs spreadsheets to cluster DNA matches into unique groups of genetically related individuals. To use the Leeds Method, first construct a spreadsheet listing close genetic cousins, ordered from those sharing the most DNA to those sharing less DNA. Selection of which cousins to include might focus on a certain number of closest matches or a lower threshold of shared DNA.

Next, set an upper threshold (often around 350-400 cM), to exclude close genetic cousins. Close genetic cousins need to be excluded since the whole point of sorting genetic cousins is to construct meaningful clusters of genetic cousins whose relationships to each other can be explored. Including close genetic cousins will result in helpful clusters being merged into larger and less helpful clusters. For example, if a first cousin is used to define a cluster, their shared matches will include many relatives from an entire side of the tester’s family tree. Excluding this match and starting with more distant matches is more likely to result in unique clusters associated with each grandparent or even great grandparent.

Once an upper threshold has been set, analyze the first individual sharing an amount of DNA below the threshold. Assign a color to this match and all of the person’s shared matches. Then analyze the next match without an assigned color, and assign a second color to that person and his or her matches.  Repeat this process until all of the matches selected for the analysis are organized by color in relationship clusters. 

Following this process of color assignment will often result in the formation of a handful of clusters of related matches. These clusters (represented by a single color) often are composed of descendants of an ancestor or ancestral couple, descendants and collateral relatives of an ancestral couple, or endogamous populations from particular lines of ancestry. Analysis of the family trees of genetic cousins in a cluster can often reveal the likely association to particular ancestral lines and can aid in prioritization of which genetic cousins would be most helpful for exploration of a particular research question. See Dana Leeds's blog for additional advice on how to interpret the results of these color-coding efforts.

Other Genetic Genealogy Uses for Spreadsheets

Spreadsheets can also be used to prioritize analysis of genetic cousins across multiple testing platforms, and they can serve as a type of research log where annotations on relationships, research efforts, and analysis can be recorded in a single location. Until recently, several DNA testing companies offered options for downloading information regarding DNA matches. However, recent privacy and data security concerns have resulted in these features being removed from many of the DNA testing companies. Instead, information from genetic match lists might be copied and pasted into spreadsheets and then formatted for useful organization and analysis.

Spreadsheets can also be used to analyze the test results of multiple individuals—perhaps several tested siblings or multiple descendants of a research subject. Descendants inherit different portions of their ancestor’s DNA and therefore have different amounts of shared DNA with key genetic cousins. They may even have completely different key genetic cousins. Combining their DNA test results can help in prioritization of analysis for pertinent genetic cousins.

The versatility of spreadsheets enables organization and analysis of DNA test results in many ways. Application of formulas can also enhance analysis efforts and aid in prioritization of matches who may be relevant to a research question.

If you need help organizing and sorting your DNA matches, analyzing the DNA matches of several testers descending from a research subject, or working to isolate more distant genetic cousins who are most pertinent to a research question, our researchers at Legacy Tree Genealogists can help!

Tools For Visualizing Relationships: SmartArt and Lucidcharts

Once DNA matches are organized and prioritized, the next step is often analysis of individual matches or clusters of genetic cousins. Visualization of relationships and relationship levels in descent charts is helpful not only for analysis, but also for communication of findings. Two excellent digital options for descendancy charts are SmartArt charts in Microsoft Office applications and Lucidchart.

Labeled hierarchy formats provided by SmartArt options in the Microsoft Office Suite empower quick and effective construction of descendancy charts for genetic cousins through bulleted text inputs. Chart created by author.

In Microsoft Word (and other Microsoft applications), SmartArt hierarchies can be used to show relationships between descendants of a common ancestral couple. To incorporate these charts in a Word document, click on Insert in the top ribbon, SmartArt in the second ribbon, Hierarchy in the resulting list of options, Labeled Hierarchy in the second row of the chart, and OK. One way to adjust the structure of these charts is to select the Add Shape menu option in the top left corner.

For a more rapid and efficient method of changing the format and entries in the chart, choose Text Pane and make adjustments by using the tab key. Change layouts, colors, and design and shape fills through Design and Format menu options in the top ribbon.

While SmartArt hierarchies are helpful for showing the relationships between several descendants of a single ancestor or ancestral couple, they are not as versatile for depicting relationships between descendants of multiple families. To show relationships between descendants of multiple families, or as another option for descent trees from a single ancestor or ancestral couple, consider Lucidchart, one of several tools available through Lucid (https://lucid.app) with free or paid subscription options for creating charts.

Create Lucidcharts by selecting different types of shapes and lines and linking them together. While there is no text entry input to guide the formation of a chart as there is in SmartArt, the charting process is fairly straightforward and can be performed quickly.

 

Lucidchart, a web-based app for creating charts, can be used to demonstrate relationships between a test taker and several genetic cousins. Chart created by author.

For both SmartArt and Lucidchart, charts showing the relationships between genetic cousins and a test subject might include names, birth dates, death dates, and additional information such as names or usernames of genetic cousins and the amounts of DNA they share with a test taker.

A Tool for Genetic Genealogy Analysis: What Are the Odds? (WATO)

Another tool for visualizing relationships between genetic cousins who descend from a common ancestor is the What Are the Odds? tool at DNAPainter. An even better use of this tool is to enable analysis of competing hypotheses for where a test taker might fit into a larger tree of extended relatives, based on amounts of shared DNA.

Use the Add Parent and Add Child options to map out relationships between descendants of a common ancestor or ancestral couple. Half-relationships can be entered between siblings within a family group, and birth dates and death dates can be added for deceased generations between matches and the common ancestor or ancestral couple. Amounts of shared DNA can be entered for DNA matches. The structure and data for a tree can be imported via GEDCOM if desired. Finally, hypotheses for where a test taker might fit into a family tree can be added or automatically generated and subsequently narrowed based on documentary evidence and genealogical context.

 

WATO, a tool developed by Jonny Perl with input from Leah Larkin, Andrew Millard, and many others, enables visualization of relationships between genetic cousins to a test subject. It also facilitates analysis and exploration of hypothesized scenarios for how a test taker may fit into a larger extended family tree. Image courtesy of Jonny Perl.

WATO will use probabilities reported in the AncestryDNA Matching Whitepaper (original probabilities) or the updates to those probabilities published through AncestryDNA match lists (beta probabilities), in order to rank hypotheses based on their relative probabilities to one another as determined through joint probability analysis.

While DNAPainter’s Shared cM Project tool can offer insight into the probability of a single relationship between a test taker and a genetic cousin, WATO can communicate the relative strength of competing hypotheses, based on the relationships between a test taker and many relatives with documented descent from the same ancestor or ancestral couple. In some cases, this visualization can help to clarify the most likely hypothesized relationship between a test taker and genetic cousins and may even enable researchers to rule out hypotheses that are much less likely.

Conclusion

The Leeds Method, spreadsheets, SmartArt, Lucidchart, and What Are the Odds? are just a few of many tools to help organize, chart, diagram, visualize, analyze, and interpret DNA evidence in the context of genetic genealogy.

If you'd like help making sense of your DNA test results to help you accurately expand your family tree, you can schedule a consultation here with one of our expert genetic genealogists. 

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Five Tips for Contacting Genetic Cousins

Prior to contacting a genetic cousin, perform a preliminary search to estimate the potential nature of the relationship, what ancestral line may be the source of the shared DNA, and whether there are any shared ancestral locations, surnames or ancestor. Including details from this preliminary search in initial contacts can increase the chances of a response. (This article first appeared in DNA Discovery and has been republished here with permission). 

cousins embracing

In all genealogical investigation, researchers are tasked with navigating the dispersed traces of their ancestors’ legacy. Recorded snippets of ancestors’ lives are often spread across multiple repositories, archives, and collections due to the ways in which governments, churches, and other organizations interacted with an individual and recorded information about that person’s life. Physical and real property may have been divided and passed down to the descendants. Similarly, different families descending from the same ancestor may have passed on unique traditions, stories, photographs, or records relating to their shared ancestor. 

Just as collaboration and correspondence with the different heirs and custodians of the physical and documented fragments of an ancestor’s legacy can aid in illuminating a more complete picture of that individual’s story, so too can collaboration with different genetic heirs aid in uncovering a more complete genetic picture of an ancestor’s heritage.

Descendants of an ancestor inherit different types and portions of that individual’s DNA and therefore have different segments of DNA inherited from the ancestor. In turn, they share different amounts of DNA with genetic cousins, and perhaps even different genetic cousins altogether. Collaboration with genetic cousins can corroborate family stories, provide additional data points for analysis, and help to break through challenging research obstacles.

Following are some of my best tips for contacting and working with genetic cousins.

1. Prepare the Genetic Cousins Through Preliminary Research

Before reaching out to a genetic cousin, perform preliminary research to determine as much as possible about the relative. Information obtained through these preliminary searches may increase the chances that an initial message will result in a response. Use any and all clues associated with a match’s profile to narrow down potential relationships.

Armed with those clues, researchers might also search for additional information in social media and public records. Some questions to consider include:

▪ How much DNA does the genetic cousin share with the test taker, and what are the possible levels of relationship? (See DNA Painter’s Shared cM Project Tool.)

▪ What profile details (age, residence, occupation, family trees) might aid in identifying the nature of the genetic cousin’s relationship?

▪ Do the ethnicity admixture results of the genetic cousin offer clues regarding the source of shared DNA with the test taker?

▪ Who are the shared matches with the genetic cousin, and what could that information indicate regarding the likely ancestral line through which the genetic cousin may be related?

Answers to these questions might help researchers determine who a genetic cousin is and how the person is related to a test subject. Since collaboration efforts with genetic relatives are often focused on discovering this same information, it may be tempting to forgo collaboration if the relationship to a genetic cousin has already been ascertained through preliminary research. Even so, it can still be beneficial to contact the match for confirmation of the relationship, additional family details, and collaborative research efforts.

If preliminary searches do not immediately lead to the identification of a match and the exact relationship, answers to the questions above can help researchers customize their communication to include the names, surnames, or ancestral localities of ancestors who might be the source of shared DNA with the genetic cousin. Providing these details in initial communication can catch the attention of matches, give them a foundation for clarifying their relationship, and help them feel more at ease in sharing information.

2. Formulate a Clear Purpose and Consider The Audience

Collaboration with genetic cousins is most helpful when researchers are working toward a clear research objective and can highlight the reasons why they are contacting particular genetic cousins. In sharing this purpose, researchers should briefly explain their goals, why they are reaching out to the genetic cousin, and why they need that specific genetic cousin’s help.

It can be helpful to customize the correspondence, so the reader sees that the researcher is reaching out individually rather than sending a form message to many relatives. Include elements from preliminary research, with the aim of making a response from the genetic cousin as smooth and effortless as possible. Rather than sharing the entire body of a researcher’s previous studies (which might leave a reader confused), communicate the purpose clearly and concisely and then highlight the need for collaboration with the genetic cousin. For example:

Dear John,

My name is Peter and I am contacting you to request your assistance. Over the last several years I have been working to identify the biological father of my great-grandmother, Ann Hochstetler born in 1821 in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Based on the matches you share with me, I suspect you might be related through her unknown father. To learn more, I need the help of genetic cousins like you to find out how you are related to other potentially pertinent genetic cousins…

3. Make Specific Requests for Your Genetic Cousins

In addition to clearly communicating the overarching goal, specify the help needed. To avoid overwhelming a relative in an initial contact, prioritize the most important assistance desired from a genetic cousin and make one or two clear requests. Some ideas for helpful requests include:

▪ names of grandparents (rather than a family tree—the cousin may not know how to create a tree or have the time to create one)

▪ confirmation of descent from a suspected ancestor

▪ information on amounts of shared DNA or known relationships to shared genetic cousins (knowing how much DNA they share with shared relatives or how they are related to shared relatives can help construct the broader family context)

▪ information about genetic cousins not shared in common which might help narrow the source of shared DNA (if a paternal first cousin is not a shared match, then the connection is more likely through the maternal side)

▪ screenshots of information from their results

▪ access to test results (perhaps after first establishing contact)

These and other elements can help provide additional evidence when evaluating relationships and determining the source of shared DNA between a test taker and a genetic cousin. If a genetic cousin responds and expresses interest and willingness in helping further, researchers might consider making further requests and building upon the collaboration.

4. Offer Assistance in Exchange

When requesting information, it can be helpful to offer assistance in exchange. Some ideas include:

▪ the names of the researcher’s own family

▪ photographs of pertinent family members

▪ documents and research reports on shared ancestors

▪ access to the researcher’s own test results

▪ offers to build a match’s family tree

▪ keeping the genetic cousin updated on research progress

Researchers who include a specific offer in their correspondence with a genetic cousin should be sure to follow up and follow through on any commitments, promises, or offers made. By combining clear descriptions of goals, specific requests, and generous offers in return, researchers incentivize the collaboration of genetic cousins and make them stakeholders in solving a family history mystery.

cousins walking arms around each other

5. Exercise Patience and Plan When to Move On

Many genetic cousins may have received a DNA test as a gift, or they may have taken it to learn more about medical history or ethnicity rather than pursuing a specific interest in genealogical research. Some test takers never return or login to their account after the initial posting of their results. Others may have lost their login details, forgotten about the test, or even died since they took the test. Yet others may receive a message, but ignore it, forget to respond, or need more time to consider if they would like to collaborate.

For these and a host of other reasons, genetic cousins may take several weeks, months, or even years to respond to initial contact attempts or may never respond at all. Rather than placing research efforts on indefinite hold, plan how much time to grant to genetic cousins while awaiting a response—perhaps a few weeks or a month. After that time frame, follow up one or two more times, through the same contact method or by alternative forms of contact.

If no response is received after three or four attempts, avoid pestering or bullying through continued contact attempts. Move on and consider other avenues for obtaining the needed information including additional research on the genetic cousin, correspondence with shared genetic cousins, or descendancy research from potential common ancestors.

Conclusion

By performing preliminary research, communicating clear purposes, making specific requests, offering helpful assistance in return, and exercising patience in communication and follow up efforts, researchers can more efficiently obtain information from key genetic cousins who may have information, stories, documents, unique genetic relationships, and other details to help in resolving family history mysteries. Following the above tips can help researchers more frequently achieve successful communications in genetic genealogy research.

If you'd like to schedule a 45-minute consultation to get advice from one of our genetic genealogists about contacting your genetic cousins, you can schedule your appointment here. 

Watch our Genetic/DNA Genealogy video interviews here on YouTube. 

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How To Prove The Exact Nature of Misattributed Parentage With DNA Testing

This article was originally published in National Genealogy Society Magazine as “Broken Branches: Detecting Cases of Misattributed Parentage with DNA Evidence,” and is republished here with permission. 

DNA testing can sometimes uncover unexpected cases of misattributed parentage along the ancestral lines of a test taker or matches. As a result, entire limbs of a proposed family tree may be broken off and may need to be replaced through research and exploration of the biological branches.

Genetic genealogy testing can and often does reveal surprises regarding test takers’ family trees. Review of close genetic cousins can sometimes disclose a case of misattributed parentage for a test taker or for matches. Determining which individual has the case of misattributed parentage in a family tree requires additional investigation. When considering this possibility, researchers should ask the following questions:

  • Are there cousins with whom the test taker expected to share DNA but does not?
  • Are there cousins with whom the test taker share less DNA than would be expected given their proposed relationship?
  • Are there close genetic cousins with no known relationship?
  • Are there proposed ancestral lines that have no representation in the test taker’s match list, where matches might be expected to appear based on geography and family sizes?

This article explores each of these questions in the context of a hypothetical scenario for the test results of an imaginary test taker and his imaginary matches. 

Are There Cousins With Whom the Test Taker Expected To Share DNA But Does Not?

Occasionally, a test taker may be aware of other relatives who have performed DNA testing (or whom they believe performed DNA testing) but who are not showing up in match lists. When this failure to match relatives occurs, researchers should explore further to ensure that the test taker and these known relatives are indeed not sharing DNA with each other.

All relatives within the range of second cousins should share at least some DNA with each other. If a known sibling, first cousin, or second cousin has performed DNA testing and is not showing in a test taker’s match list, researchers should ensure that the following statements are true:

  • The relative did indeed take and submit the DNA test.
  • The relative performed DNA testing at the same company where the test subject also tested. Companies maintain separate databases, so if known cousins test with a different company, they will not appear as matches. 
  • The relative has opted into DNA matching. Some companies offer the option of performing an autosomal DNA test to obtain ethnicity estimates or other reports while opting out of DNA matching. 
  • The relative’s test results have completed processing. Sometimes there is a delay in a cousin showing up in the match lists of others if the test results have just recently completed processing.
  • The relative is not using an alias or unidentifiable username. Sometimes the cousin may be in the test taker’s match list, but under a username the test taker does not recognize.

If all these statements are true, there may be a case of misattributed parentage for the test taker or for the known relative. To determine which individual does not descend from the proposed common ancestors, consider the matches in each individual’s genetic test results.

Imagine that John Smith took a DNA test along with his paternal cousin, Sharon. They are both proposed grandchildren of Paul and Helen Smith. When the test results complete processing, John finds that he does not share DNA with Sharon. In this scenario, there are two main possibilities:

  1. John is not a descendant of Paul and Helen Smith, or
  2. Sharon is not a descendant of Paul and Helen Smith

SCENARIO 1: If John shares DNA with other descendants or close collateral relatives of Paul and Helen Smith, while Sharon does not, then Sharon is not a biological descendant of Paul and Helen .

SCENARIO 2: If Sharon shares DNA with descendants or close collateral relatives of Paul and Helen which John does not match, then John is not a biological descendant of Paul and Helen.

It is also possible that neither of them descends from the couple but there are no other tested descendants of collateral relatives. Those scenarios require additional analysis and exploration.

scenario 1 misattributed parentage

Lack of sharing DNA between known relatives strongly indicates a case of misattributed parentage for individuals who are expected to be related within the range of close family to second cousins. More distant relatives, in the range of second cousins once removed to more distant relatives, may have simply inherited different portions of their shared ancestors’ DNA and may not share DNA with each other. 

To determine if this is the case for more distant known relatives, determine if one or both individuals share DNA with other descendants or collateral relatives of the proposed common ancestors. 

Are There Cousins With Whom the Test Taker Shares Less DNA Than Would Be Expected Given Their Proposed Relationship?

If known relatives share half the amount of DNA that would be expected given their proposed relationship, it may be possible that they are half rather than full relatives. To explore this possibility, utilize the evaluation tools through DNA Painter and the Shared cM Project to determine the likely relationship based on the amount of shared DNA. Analyze the matches shared between them to discover if their shared cousins include collateral relatives of both of their proposed common ancestors or only one of them.

Imagine a different situation where John Smith and his paternal first cousin, Sharon, perform DNA testing at the same testing company. When the results complete processing, they are found to share just 550 centimorgans with each other. According to DNA Painter’s Share cM Project 4.0 tool, this amount of shared DNA is more likely between half first cousins (about 80-90 percent probability) than it is between full first cousins (about 10-20 percent probability). In this scenario, there are three main possibilities: 

  1. John is a descendant of Paul and Helen Smith while Sharon is a descendant of only Paul or Helen (scenario 3).
  2. Sharon is a descendant of Paul and Helen Smith while John is a descendant of only Paul or Helen (scenario 4).
  3. Both are descendants of Paul and  Helen but happen to share a low amount of DNA with each other given their proposed relationship (scenario 5). 

If John has genetic cousins who are related through the ancestry of both Paul and Helen, while Sharon only has genetic cousins who are related through Helen, and she shares consistently low amounts of DNA with other descendants of Paul and Helen, then Sharon’s parent was not the biological child of Paul but was the child of Helen. 

If Sharon has genetic cousins who are related through the ancestry of both Paul and Helen, while John has only genetic cousins who are related through Helen, and he shares consistently low amounts of DNA with other descendants of Paul and Helen, then John’s father was not a biological son of Paul but was the son of Helen. 

If both individuals have genetic cousins who are related through the ancestry of both Paul and Helen, then they are full first cousins and simply share low amounts of DNA given their proposed relationship.

scenario 4 misattributed parentage

Are There Close Genetic Matches With No Known Relationship?

Another hallmark of cases of misattributed parentage is the presence in the match list of close genetic cousins (those sharing more than 200 cM) for whom no known or documented relationship to the test subject can be determined based on their proposed family trees. To determine which individual might have a case of misattributed parentage in a family tree, it is useful to consider the shared matches between the test taker and the match and determine which family tree those shared matches support.

Imagine that John Smith has an unknown but close genetic cousin, Mary, sharing 600 cM, who has an extensive six-generation family tree associated with her test results. Based on the amount of DNA they share with each other, they should be related in the range of a first cousin to first cousin once removed. John could have a case of misattributed parentage in his family tree and may biologically descend from Mary’s ancestors. Mary could have a case of misattributed parentage in her family tree and could biologically descend from John’s ancestors. Alternatively, they could both  have cases of misattributed parentage in their trees and may descend from a shared common ancestor unknown to either of them.

If John’s matches shared with Mary are known descendants and collateral relatives of his paternal grandparents, Paul and/or Helen Smith, Mary is also descended from Paul and/or Helen or one of their collateral relatives, and she has a case of misattributed parentage in her family tree (scenario 6). If John’s matches shared with Mary are all descended from a set of Mary’s second-great-grandparents, John is also descended from this same couple and has a case of misattributed parentage in his family tree (scenario 7). 

If none of the matches shared between John and Mary have clear relationships to the proposed family trees of Mary and John, but instead they form their own cluster of known relatives descended from a completely different couple, then both John and Mary may have cases of misattributed parentage in their family trees (scenario 8). 

One additional clue that can signal a case of misattributed parentage is when a test taker’s match list lacks representation of collateral relatives through a proposed ancestral line. However, researchers should exercise caution in these situations to avoid jumping to a hasty conclusion. In this case, absence of evidence is not necessarily evidence of absence. Having no matches from a particular line does not always mean that a test taker does not biologically descend from that family.

Unrepresented family lines might be composed of several generations of small families who had only one or two children, resulting in few living descendants to test in the first place (scenario 9). Underrepresented families might be composed of recent immigrants from countries, regions, and populations that are now well-sampled in the database (scenario 10). In other cases, family members from that particular line may not have performed DNA testing yet (scenario 11). In these situations (which are not mutually exclusive, it is useful to consider the family sizes, geographic origins, and other family details for the ancestral line that is missing in the test results.

If a lack of representation from a particular line accompanies one of the scenarios discussed above (no relationship to a known tested relative, lower than expected amounts of share DNA with the known relatives, or multiple genetic cousins with a documented relationship to each other but not the test subject), then a case of misattributed parentage if likely.

Even so, the best way to explore the anomaly of missing representation is to target-test relatives from that family line, in order to test the hypothesis that the lack of matches is due to misattributed parentage at some point along that ancestral line rather than low testing representation from the family in the database.

Imagine that John has many matches who are related through the ancestry of his maternal grandparents as well as many matches through the ancestry of his paternal grandmother, but he cannot identify any matches who are related through the ancestry of his paternal grandfather Paul Smith. If Paul Smith was from a  family of ten children and descended from a long line of large families in colonial America, at least some matches through this proposed ancestral line would be expected. 

Meanwhile, if Paul was the only child of an only child of an only child who was an immigrant from Germany, the lack of genetic cousins from that ancestral line is more likely due to small family sizes and recent immigration from an underrepresented population in the testing database. In either case, targeted testing of a documented relative could help confirm or refute the possibility of a case of misattributed parentage. 

Conclusion

Autosomal DNA testing can sometimes yield surprising results which might suggest a case of misattributed parentage for test takers or their matches. In order to prove or disprove this possibility, determine if there are known tested relatives who the test taker does not match. 

Establish whether known relatives have lower than expected amounts of shared DNA, given their proposed relationships. 

Explore the identities of genetic cousins to determine if the list of matches includes relatives of proposed ancestors.

Research the identities of matches shared between a test taker and a mystery match to determine if one, the other, or both are descended from an unexpected family. 

Consider the family structure, geographic origins, and other details of proposed ancestral lines when there are no matches from a particular line, and target-test to confirm or refute the hypothesis that there is no biological relationship to a certain proposed ancestor.

By following these steps, researchers can avoid too-hasty conclusions and prove the exact nature of a case of misattributed parentage.   

More Genetic Genealogy Resources:

• Schedule a 45-minute consultation with a professional genetic genealogist here if you need more help determining the exact nature of misattributed parentage.

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• Read more professional genealogy blog articles about DNA testing and interpretation here.